Lecture TheTestandReading The Lecture HowtoRead yzea Long Short Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture Typesof Lecture Exercise Exercise Exercise LectureTheTestandReadingThe1.ThePhysicalSciencesSocialSciencesthereadingpassagesDrawinginferencesfromfactsandstatementsinthereadingarepresentedinverbalmaterialMainIdea

LogicalRelationship:Passage(文章層次總TW(Topic

conclusion >

V,adj, kw,a,b,kw>abcabc,xyz DrawingconclusionsfromfactsandstatementsinthereadingQuestionsofthistypeaskyoutoconsiderfactualstatementsorinformationand，onthebasisofthatinformation,reachageneralconclusionUnderstandingandfollowingthedevelopmentoftativeconceptsastheyarepressedinverbalmaterial;Questionsofthistypeinvolvetheinterpretationofnumericaldataortheuseofsimplearithmetictoreachconclusionsaboutmaterialsinapassage.Nospecificknowledgeofthematerialisrequired.Allquestionsaretobeansweredonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthereadingmaterial.HowtoRead yzeaLongShortAlthoughnumbersofanimalsinagivenregionmayfluctuatefromyeartoyearthefluctuationsareoftentemporaryand,overlongperiods,trivial.Scientistshaveadvancedthreetheoriesofpopulationcontroltoaccountforthisrelativeconstancy(詞).ThefirsttheoryattributesarelativelyconstantpopulationtoperiodicclimaticcatastrophesthatdecimatepopulationswithsuchfrequencyastopreventthemfromexceedingsomeparticularAsecondtheoryarguesthatpopulationgrowthisprimarilydensity-dependent—thatis,therateofgrowthofapopulationinaregiondecreasesasthenumberofanimalsincreasesAthirdtheory,proposedbyWynne-Edwardsandtermed“epideictic,”arguesthatorganismshaveevolveda“code”intheformofsocialorepideicticbehaviordisys….Althoughnumbersofanimalsinagivenregionmayfluctuatefromyeartoyear,thefluctuationsareoftentemporaryand,overlongperiods,trivial.Scientistshaveadvancedthreetheoriesofpopulationcontroltoaccountforthisrelativeconstancy.Thefirsttheoryattributesarelativelyconstantpopulationtoperiodicclimaticcatastrophesthatdecimatepopulationswithsuchfrequencyastopreventthemfromexceedingsomeparticularlimit.Inthecaseofsmallorganismswithshortlifecycles,climaticchangesneednotbecatastrophic:normalseasonalchangesinphotoperiod(dailyamountofsunlight),forexample,canernpopulationgrowth.Thistheory—thedensity-independentview—assertsthatclimaticfactorsexertthesameregulatoryeffectonpopulationregardlessofthenumberofindividualsinAsecondtheoryarguesthatpopulationgrowthisprimarilydensity-dependent—thatis,therateofgrowthofapopulationinaregiondecreasesasthenumberofanimalsincreases.Themechanismsthatmanageregulationmayvary.Forexample,asnumbersincrease,thefoodsupplywouldprobablydiminish,whichwouldincreasemortality.Inaddition,asLotkaandVolterrahaveshown,predatorscanfindpreymoreeasilyinhigh-densitypopulations.Otherregulatorsincludephysiologicalcontrolmechanisms:forexample,ChristianandDavishavedemonstratedhowthecrowdingthatresultsfromariseinnumbersmaybringabouthormonalchangesinthepituitaryandadrenalglandsthatinturnmayregulatepopulationbylowering ualactivityandinhibitingualmaturation.Thereisevidencethattheseeffectsmaypersistforthreegenerationsintheabsenceoftheoriginalprovocation.Onechallengefordensity-dependenttheoristsistomodelsthatwouldallowtheprecisepredictionoftheeffectsofAthirdtheory,proposedbyWynne-Edwardsandtermed“epideictic,”arguesthatorganismshaveevolveda“code”intheformofsocialorepideicticbehaviordisys,suchaswinter-roostingaggregationsorgroupvocalizing;suchcodesprovideorganismswithinformationonpopulationsizeinaregionsothattheycan,ifnecessary,exercisereproductiverestraint.However,Wynne-Edwards’theory,linkinganimalsocialbehaviorandpopulationcontrol,hasbeenchallenged,withsomejustification,byseveralstudies.Q1.Theprimarypurposeofthepassageisto：首段題找文章的TopicWordsargueagainstthosescientistswhomaintainthatanimalpopulationstendtofluctuatecompareandcontrastthedensity-dependentandepideictictheoriesofpopulationprovideexampleofsomeofthewaysinwhichanimalsexercisereproductiverestrainttocontroltheirownnumberssuggeststhattheoriesofpopulationcontrolthatconcentrateonthesocialbehaviorofanimalsaremoreopentodebatethanaretheoriesthatdonotsummarizeanumberofscientifictheoriesthatattempttoexinwhyanimalpopulationsdonotexceedcertainlimitsQ2.Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatproponentsofthedensity-dependenttheoryofpopulationcontrolhavenotyetbeenableto態度：3段末句usetheirtheorytoexinthepopulationgrowthoforganismswithshortlifereproducetheresultsofthestudyofChristianandexinadequa ywhythenumbersofapopulationcanincreaseasthepopulation’srateofgrowthdecreasesdemonstratehowpredatorpopulationsarethemselvesQ3.Whichofthefollowing,iftruewouldbestsupportthedensity-dependenttheoryofpopulationcontrolasitisdescribedinthepassage?邏輯支持：3段首句AsthenumberoffoxesinMinnesotadecrease,thegrowthrateofthispopulationoffoxesbeginstoincrease.AsthenumberofwoodpeckersinVermontdecreases,thegrowthrateofthispopulationofwoodpeckersalsobeginstodecrease.AsthenumberofprairiedogsinOklahomaincreases,thegrowthrateofthispopulationofprairiedogsalsobeginstoincrease.AfterthenumberofbeaversinTennesseedecreases,thenumberofpredatorsofthesebeaversbeginstoincrease.AfterthenumberofeaglesinMontanadecreases,thefoodsupplyofthispopulationofeaglesalsobeginstodecrease.Q4.AccordingtotheWynne-Edwardstheoryasitisdescribedinthepassageepideicticbehaviordisysservethefunctionof細節：4段首句locating triggeringhormonalShortPassageIntheseventeenth-centuryFlorentinetextileindustry,womenwereemployedprimarilyinlow-paying,low-skilljobs.Toexinthissegregationoflaborbygender,economistshavereliedontheusefultheoryofhumancapital.——> 間肯定會有同義詞，eg.照抄、改寫、邏輯等價詞）Accordingtothistheory,investmentinhumancapital—theacquisitionofdifficultjob-relatedskills—generallybenefitsindividualsbymakingthemeligibletoengageinwell-paidoccupations.（講的是人力資本的概念）Women’sparticipationinthejobmarket(ascomparedwithmen’s)andthusreduces（和段首相對應）theiropportunitiestoacquiretrainingforhighlyskilledwork.Inaddition(表示并列),thehumancapitaltheoryexinswhytherewasahighconcentrationofwomenworkersincertainlow-skilljobs,suchasweaving,butnotinothers（其實是一個縮略詞）suchascombingorcarding,by（by一般來說是和謂語動詞平行的，是對謂語動詞狀態的一種說明）positingthatbecauseoftheirprimaryresponsibilityinchildrearingwomentookoccupationsthatcouldbecarriedoutinthehome.Therewere,however,differencesinpayscalesthatcannotbeexinedbythehumancapital（給出了一個非常清楚的負評價）Forexample,maleconstructionworkerswerepaidsignificantlyhigherwagethanfemaletaffetaweavers.Thewagedifferencebetweenthesetwolow-skilloccupationsstemsfrom（給出了原因）thesegregationoflaborbygender:becausealimitednumberofoccupationswereopentowomen,therewasalargesupplyofworkersintheirfields,andthis“overcrowding”resultedinwomenreceivinglowerwagesandmenreceivinghigherwages.(3.4.w;interrup.5.home)xpayscaleabQ1.Thepassagesuggeststhatcombingandcardingdifferfromweavinginthatcombingandcardinglow-skilljobsperformedbyprimarilybywomenlow-skilljobsthatwerenotperformedinthelow-skilljobsperformedbybothmaleandfemalehigh-skilljobsperformedoutsidethehigh-skilljobsperformedbybothmaleandfemaleQ2.Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostweakentheexnationprovidedbythehumancapitaltheoryforwomen’sconcentrationincertainoccupationsinseventeenth-centuryFlorence?Womenwereunlikelytoworkoutsidethehomeeveninoccupationswhosehousewereflexibleenoughtoallowwomento modatedomestictasksaswellaspaidlabor.ParentswerelesslikelytoteachoccupationalskillstotheirdaughtersthantheyweretotheirWomen’sparticipationintheFlorentinepaidlabor grewsteadilythroughoutthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.ThevastmajorityoffemaleweaversintheFlorentinewoolindustryhadFewwomenworkedasweaversintheFlorentinesilkindustry,whichwasdevotedtomakingclothsthatrequiredahighdegreeofskilltoproduce.Q3.Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodescribetheexnationprovidedbythehumancapitaltheoryforthehighconcentrationofwomenincertainoccupationsintheseventeenth-centuryFlorencetextileindustryas（混合評價）wellfounded difficulttousiblebutpoorlycontrarytorecent態度 LectureMulti-LevelStructure:發展態度1stexTS:exin+現象ButOtherwayJapanesefirmshaveachievedthehighestlevelsofmanufacturingefficiencyintheworldautoindustry.（第一句話可能是講觀點的也可能是的——>）SomeobserversofJapan（有人物就有觀點）haveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture（理論）.However（反駁）,ifthisweretrue,thenonewouldexpectJapaneseautontsintheUnitedStatestoperformnobetterthanfactoriesrunbyUnitedStatescompanies（負評價）.Thisisnotthecase…（負評價）KeyWordOtherobserverslinkhighJapaneseproductivitytohigherlevelsofcapitalinvestmentperworker.Butahistoricalleadstoadifferentconclusion.SincecapitalinvestmentwasnothigherinJapan,ithadtobeotherfactorsthatledtohigherproductivity.（過渡句——>otherfactors的存在）Amorefruitfulexnation（正評價）mayliewithJapaneseproductiontechniques.Japanesefirmshaveachievedthehighestlevelsofmanufacturingefficiencyintheworldautoindustry.（tw1現象）SomeobserversofJapanhaveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture.（kw1）However,ifthisweretrue,thenonewouldexpectJapaneseautontsintheUnitedStatestoperformnobetterthanfactoriesrunbyUnitedStatescompanies.(aw-1)ThisisnotthecapitalOtherobserverslinkhighJapaneseproductivitytohigherlevelsofworker.(kw2)Butahistoricalleadstoadifferentconclusion.(aw-capital

SincecapitalinvestmentwasnothigherinJapan,ithadtobeotherfactorsthatledtoproductivity.(kw3)AmorefruitfulexnationmayliewithJapaneseproductionpresentthemajorstepsofaclarifyanchronicleadefendanacceptedQ2.WhichofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthefirstAthesisispresentedandsupportingexamplesareAfactisstated,andanexnationisadvancedandthenAnopinionispresented,qualified（限制）andthen新老觀點發展態度HasUntilLong,[however,MostDominant[However,Untilrecently（非常清楚地表示老觀點）most(大眾的意見經常被)astronomersbelievedthatthespacebetweenthegalaxies(topicwords)inouruniversewasanear-perfectvacuum.()Thisorthodoxviewoftheuniverseisnowbeingchallengedbyastronomerswho(名詞比較抽象的時候看從句)believethataheavy“rain”ofgas（新觀點的詞）isfallingintomanygalaxiesfromthesupposedlyemptyspacearoundthem.Itiswellknownthatwhengasiscooledataconstantpressureitsvolumedecreases.Thus,thephysicistFabianreasonedthatasintergalacticgascools,thecoolergasshrinksinwardtowardthecenterofthegalaxy.——>已知的內容加上新知的內容Afairlyhereticalideainthe1970’s,thecooling-flowtheory（冷卻流gas/coolinggas）gainedsupportwhenFabianobservedaclusterofgalaxiesintheconslationPerseusandfoundthecentralgalaxy,NGC1275,tobeastrange-lookingobjectwithirregularthinstrandsofgasradiatingfromit.Untilrecentlymostastronomersbelievedthatthespacebetweenthegalaxiesinouruniversewasanear-perfectvacuum.Thisorthodoxviewoftheuniverseisnowbeingchallengedbyastronomerswhobelievethataheavy“rain”ofgasisfallingintomanygalaxiesfromthesupposedlyemptyspacearoundthem.Itiswellknownthatwhengasiscooledataconstantpressureitsvolumedecreases.Thus,thephysicistFabianreasonedthatasintergalacticgascools,thecoolergasshrinksinwardtowardthecenteroftheAfairlyhereticalideainthe1970’s,thecooling-flowtheorygainedsupportwhenFabianobservedaclusterofgalaxiesintheconslationPerseusandfoundthecentralgalaxy,NGC1275,tobeastrange-lookingobjectwithirregular,thinstrandsofgasradiatingfromit.Q1.Theprimarypurposeofthepassageisillustrateahypothesisabouttheoriginofprovideevidencetodisputeanacceptedtheoryabouttheevolutionofsummarizethestateofandprospectsforresearchinintergalacticreportnewdataontheoriginsofintergalacticreconcileopposingviewsontheformationofintergalactic發展態度Subthesis1=kwSubthesis2=kwattitudeRecentstudyJosephGlatthaar’sForgedinBattle（GJ的FB這本書）isnotthefirstexcellent（正評價）studyofBlacksoldiersandtheirWhiteofficersintheCivilWar,but（but不是，而是強調轉折）itusesmoresoldiers’lettersanddiaries—includingrarematerialfromBlacksoldiers—and（）concentratesmoreintenselyonBlack-WhiterelationsinBlackregimentsthandoanyofitspredecessors（先行的研究）.Glatthaar’stitleexpresseshisthesis（thesis是抽象名詞，要抓住后面的修飾）:loyalty,friendship,andrespectamongWhiteofficersandBlacksoldierswerefosteredbythemutualdangerstheyfacedinGlatthaaraccuray（正評價）describestheernment’sdiscriminatorytreatmentofBlacksoldiersinpay,promotion,medicalcare,andjobassignments（）appropriayemphasizingthenbyBlacksoldiersandtheirofficerstogettheopportunitytofight.Intryingtodemonstratethemagnitudeofthisattitudinalchange（不是重點是修飾成分）however,Glatthaarseemstoexaggerate（夸大）theprewarracismoftheWhitemenwhobecameofficersinBlackregiments.ForgedinForgedinBlacksoldiersandtheirWhitenotthefirstexcellentstudy

（）intheCivilWar,butusesmoresoldiers’lettersanddiaries—includingrarematerialfromBlacksoldiers—andconcentratesmoreintenselyonBlack-WhiterelationsinBlackregimentsthandoanyofitspredecessors.——>twGlatthaar’stitleexpresseshisthesis:loyalty,friendship,andrespectamongWhiteofficersandBlacksoldierswerefosteredbythemutualdangerstheyfacedincombat. discriminatory discriminatorytreatment

describes

ofBlacksoldierspay,promotion,medicalcare,andjobBlacksoldiersandtheirofficerstogettheopportunitytofight.——

thenexaggeratetheprewarIntryingtodemonstratethemagnitudeofthisattitudinalchange,however,exaggeratetheprewaroftheWhitemenwhobecameofficersinBlack——Q1.ThepassageasawholecanbestbecharacterizedaswhichoftheAnevaluationofascholarlyAdescriptionofanattitudinalAdiscussionof ytical ysisofthecausesofaAnargumentinfavorofrevisingaLectureInoderto——Adj.(eg.Aisgood/not中間提到某個是為了干什么—>點Forexample.And.InWhataccountsforthisupsurgeinunionizationamongclericalworkers?（后面就會跟上若干的原因——>實際上就是并列的原因）First,morewomenhaveenteredtheworkinthepastfewyears,andmoreofthemntoremainworkinguntilretirementage. 輯上應該是等價的）,theyareprobablymoreconcernedthantheirpredecessorswereaboutjobsecurityandeconomicbenefits.Also（并列了，給出另外一個理由）,thewomen’smovementhassucceededinlegitimizingtheeconomicandpoliticalactivismofwomenontheirownbehalf,therebyproducing（分析表示修飾，句子盡量抓主干，修飾內容不是很重要）amorepositiveattitudetowardunions.Theabsenceofanycomparableincreaseinunionizationamongprivate-表示轉折,這里表示前面兩個原因都不是primarysecondary>起得是遞進的作用）identifiestheprimarycatalyst—thestructuralchangeinthemulti-occupationalpublic-sectorunionsthemselvesOverthepasttwentyyearstheoccupationaldistributionintheseunionshasbeensteadilyshiftingfrompredominantlyblue-collartopredominantlywhite-collar.Becausetherearefarmorewomeninwhite-collarjobs,anincreaseintheproportionoffemalemembershas paniedtheoccupationalshiftandhasalteredunion-makinginfavoroforganizingwomenandaddressingwomen’sissues.Whataccountsforthisupsurgeinunionizationamongclericalworkers?First,morewomenhaveenteredthework inthepastfewyears,andmoreofthemntoremainworkinguntilretirementage.Consequently,theyareprobablymoreconcernedthantheirpredecessorswereaboutjobsecurityandeconomicbenefits.Also,thewomen’smovementhassucceededinlegitimizingtheeconomicandpoliticalactivismofwomenontheirownbehalf,therebyproducingamorepositiveattitudetowardunions.Theabsenceofanycomparableincreaseinunionizationamongprivate-sectorclericalworkers,however,identifiestheprimarycatalyst—thestructuralchangeinthemulti-occupationalpublic-sectorunionsthemselves.Overthepasttwentyyears,theoccupationaldistributionintheseunionshasbeensteadilyshiftingfrompredominantlyblue-collartopredominantlywhite-collar.Becausetherearefarmorewomeninwhite-collarjobs,anincreaseintheproportionoffemalemembershas paniedtheoccupationalshiftandhasalteredunion-makinginfavoroforganizingwomenandaddressingwomen’sissues.Q1.Theauthorstatesthatwhichofthefollowingisaconsequenceofthewomen’smovementofrecentyears?AnincreaseinthenumberofwomenenteringtheAmorepositiveattitudeonthepartofwomentowardAnincreaseintheproportionofclericalworkersthatareAnincreaseinthenumberofwomeninadministrative兩個事物：Avs.Avs.differ,(OntheAvs.Althoughtherelationshipbetweenvegetationandclimateisnotasdirectastherelationshipbetweenclimateandlakelevels,themethodoftenworkswellinthetemperatezones.Inaridandsemiaridregionsinwhichthereisnotmuchvegetation,however,smallchangesinoneorafewnttypescanchangethepicturedramatically,makingaccuratecorrelationsbetweenneighboringareasdifficulttoobtain.Although(Although有種讓步轉折的感覺，但是重點不是在這里)therelationshipbetweenvegetationandclimateisnotasdirectastherelationshipbetweenclimateandlakelevels,themethodoftenworkswellinthetemperatezones.Inaridandsemiaridregionsinwhichthereisnotmuchvegetation,however,smallchangesinoneorafewnttypescanchangethepicturedramatically,makingaccuratecorrelationsbetweenneighboringareasdifficulttoobtain.Q2.Whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutthestudyofpastclimatesinaridandsemiaridregions?Itissometimesmoredifficulttodeterminepastclimaticconditionsinaridandsemiaridregionsthanintemperateregions.Althoughinthepastmoreresearchhasbeendoneontemperateregions,paleoclimatologistshaverecentlyturnedtheirattentiontoaridandsemiaridregions.Althoughmoreinformationaboutpastclimatescanbegatheredinaridandsemiaridthanintemperateregions,datingthisinformationismoredifficult.Itisdifficulttostudytheclimatichistoryofaridandsemiaridregionsbecausetheirclimateshavetendedtovarymorethanthoseoftemperateregions.ThestudyofpastclimatesinaridandsemiaridregionshasbeenneglectedbecauseregionssupportagreatervarietyofntandanimalRecentyearshavebroughtminority-ownedbusinessesintheUnitedStates（暗示了有時間對比）opportunities—aswellasnewandsignificantrisks.CivilrightsactivistshavelongarguedthatoneoftheprincipalreasonswhyBlacksHispanicsandotherminoritygroupshavedifficultyestablishingthemselvesinbusinessisthattheylackaccesstothesizableordersandsubcontractsthataregeneratedbylargecompanies.NowCongress,inapparentagreement,hasrequiredbylawthatbusinessesawardedfederalcontractsofmorethan$500,000dotheirbesttofindminoritysubcontractorsandrecord（只要是并列成分都沒有那么關鍵）theireffortstodosoonformsfiledwiththeernment.Indeed,somefederalandlocalagencieshavegonesofarastosetspecificpercentagegoalsforapportioningpartsofpublicworkscontractstominorityenterprises.Recentyearshavebroughtminority-ownedbusinessesintheUnitedStatesunprecedentedopportunities—aswellasnewandsignificantrisks.CivilrightsactivistshavelongarguedthatoneoftheprincipalreasonswhyBlacks,Hispanics,andotherminoritygroupshavedifficultyestablishingthemselvesinbusinessisthattheylackaccesstothesizableordersandsubcontractsthataregeneratedbylargecompanies.NowCongress,inapparentagreement,hasrequiredbylawthatbusinessesawardedfederalcontractsofmorethan$500,000dotheirbesttofindminoritysubcontractorsandrecordtheireffortstodosoonformsfiledwiththeernment.Indeed,somefederalandlocalagencieshavegonesofarastosetspecificpercentagegoalsforapportioningpartsofpublicworkscontractstominorityQ3.Accordingtothepassage,civilrightsactivistsmaintainthatonedisadvantageunderwhichminority-ownedbusinesseshavetraditionallyhadtolaboristhattheyhavebeenespeciallyvulnerable ernmentalmismanagementofthebeendeniedbankloansatratescomparabletothoseaffordedlargernotbeenabletoadvertiseinthosemediathatreachlargenumbersofpotentialnothadadequaterepresentationinthecenters ernment多determine,cause,correlate減少、削弱、doesnotcorrelateInthesofNewBrunswick,forexample,variouspesticideshavebeensprayedinthepast25yearsineffortstocontrol（暗示了一種因果關系）thesprucebudworm,aneconomicallysignificantpest.ScientistshavenowinvestigatedtheeffectsofthesprayingofM il,oneoftheanti-budwormagentsthatisleasttoxic（比較對比的一種形式要注意一下）toinsect-pollinators.TheystudiedM il’seffectsoninsectmortalityinawidevarietyofwildinsectspeciesandonntfecundity（繁殖，生殖）,expressedasthepercentageofthetotalflowersonanindividualntthatactuallydevelopedfruitandboreseeds.Theyfoundthat（和上文的foundthat、haveinvestigated都是平行的動詞，完全都是并列的感覺）themostpronouncedmortalityafterthesprayingofM iloccurredamongthesmallerbeesandonefamilyofflies,insectsthatwereallimportantpollinatorsofnumerousspeciesofntsgrowingbeneaththetreecanopyofs.Thefecundityofntsinonecommonindigenousspecies,thered-osierdogwood,wassignificantlyreduced（數量減少的一種關系—>重要）inthesprayedareasascomparedtothatofntsincontrolplotswhereM ilwasnotsprayed.Thisspeciesishighlydependentontheinsect-pollinatorsmostvulnerabletoM il.Thecreedogwood,aspeciessimilartothered-osierdogwood,butwhichispollinatedbylargebees,suchasbumblebees,showednosignificantdeclineinfecundity.（不是純粹的對比，是因果關系的對比，由小型蜂類授粉的植物ROD它的數目會減少）SincelargebeesarenotaffectedbythesprayingofM il,theseresultsaddweighttotheargumentthatsprayingwherethepollinatorsaresensitivetothepesticideuseddecreasesntfecundity.InthesofNewBrunswick,forexample,variouspesticides（kw）havebeensprayedinthepast25yearsineffortstocontrolthesprucebudworm,aneconomicallysignificantpest.ScientistshavenowinvestigatedtheeffectsofthesprayingofMil,oneoftheanti-budwormagentsthatisleasttoxictoinsect-pollinators.TheystudiedMil’seffects(a)oninsectmortalityinawidevarietyofwildinsectspeciesandonntfecundity,expressedasthepercentageofthetotalflowersonanindividualntthatactuallydevelopedfruitandboreseeds.TheyfoundthatthemostpronouncedmortalityafterthesprayingofMiloccurredamongthesmallerbeesandonefamilyofflies,insectsthatwereallimportantpollinatorsoffecundityof speciesofntsgrowingbeneaththetreecanopy s.fecundityof commonindigenousspecies,thered-osierdogwood,wassignificantlyreduced(c1VSc1’)inthesprayedareasascomparedtothatofntsincontrolplotswhereMilwasnotsprayed(c1’’)Thisspeciesishighlydependentontheinsect-pollinatorsmostvulnerabletoMil.Thecreedogwood,aspeciessimilartothered-osierdogwood,butwhichispollinatedbylargebees,suchasbumblebees,showednosignificantdecline(vsc2)infecundity.SincelargebeesarenotaffectedbythesprayingofMil,theseresultsaddweighttotheargumentthatsprayingwherethepollinatorsaresensitivetothepesticideuseddecreasesntfecundity（cs）.Q4.Thepassagesuggeststhatthelackofanobserveddeclineinthefecundityofthecreedogwoodstrengthenstheresearchersconclusionsregardingpesticideusebecausethecreedogwoodisaspeciesthatdoesnotresemble creedogwoodisaspeciespollinatedbyabroaderrangeofinsectspeciesthanaremostdogwoodspeciescreedogwoodgrowsprimarilyinregionsthatwerenotsprayedwithpesticide,andsoservedasacontrolfortheexperimentcreedogwoodissimilartothered-osierdogwood,butitsinsectpollinatorsareknowntobeinsensitivetothepesticideusedinthestudygeographicalrangeofthecreedogwoodissimilartothatofthered-osierdogwood,butthelatterspeciesrelieslessonseedsforreproductionQ5.ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingistrueoftheregionsinNewBrunswicksprayedwithmostanti-budwormpesticidesotherthanM ThefecundityofsomefloweringntsinthoseregionsmayhavedecreasedtoanevengreaterdegreethanintheregionswhereM ilisused.Insectmortalityinthoseregionsoccursmostlyamongthelargerspeciesofinsects,suchasThenumberofseedsproducedbycommonntspeciesinthoseregionsiscomparabletothenumberproducedwhere ilisManymorentspecieshave eextinctinthoseregionsthanintheregionswhere ilisused.Thesprucebudwormisunderbettercontrolinthoseregionsthanintheregionswhere ilissprayed.Toestablishsuchachronologyitisnecessarytodeterminetherelativeamountsoflandice（主題詞—>陸地上的冰）thatexistedatvarioustimesintheEarth’spast.Arecentdiscoverymakessuchadeterminationpossible:relativeland-icevolumeforagivenperiodcanbededucedfrom(又意味著一種因果關系，想一下因果雙方是什么——>氧的同位素和冰的關系)theratiooftwooxygenisotopes,16and18,foundinoceansediments.Almostalltheoxygeninwaterisoxygen16,butafewmoleculesoutofeverythousandincorporatetheheavierisotope18.Whenaniceagebegins,thecontinentalicesheetsgrow,steadilyreducingtheamountofwaterevaporatedfromtheoceanthatwilleventuallyreturntoit.(一個句子有五個東西，環節豐富，難以記憶)Becauseheavierisotopestendtobeleftbehindwhenwaterevaporatesfromtheoceansurfaces,theremainingoceanwater esprogressivelyenrichedinoxygen18.Thedegreeofenrientcanbedeterminedbyyzingoceansedimentsoftheperiod,becausethesesedimentsarecomposedofcalciumcarbonatessofmarineorganisms,ssthatwereconstructedwithoxygenatomsdrawnfromthesurroundingocean.（記住，記住因果關系的雙方）Thehighertheratioofoxygen18tooxygen16inasedimentaryspecimen,themorelandicetherewaswhenthese