1、西方社會學理論課程學習目標?社會學洞察力(sociological insight)?社會學想象力(sociological imagination)? 社會學傳統(the sociological tradition)西方社會學理論的敘述框架?人物(thethinkers, masters)?流派(thesystems, the schools, theisms)?觀念(theideas, the elements of systems)?主題(thethemes, the leitmotifs)以現代性為主線?(sociology=the study of modernity)? the

2、problematics of sociology isthe project of modernity? 傳統現代性后現代性經典大師主要流派核心主題? 經典社會學家側重于解釋和診斷從傳統到現代的轉變機制及其問題(宏大歷史敘事與問題取向)(三位一體與三大神話)；? 現代社會學家側重于完善解釋現代社會的理論體系(學科化、學院化與范式之爭)；? 當代社會學家側重于新現實的探索與社會學本身的重新定位(后現代性與否思社會科學)。西方現代性的形成發展西方現代性形成過程中的關鍵事件：? 歐洲中古后期城市的興起(11-13C) -自治? 文藝復興運動(14-15C) “人的發現”? 海外探險及殖民主義(15

3、-19C) “世界的發現”?資本主義(14-20C)?民族國家(16C)?科學革命(17C)?啟蒙運動(18C)： a set of ideas?政治革命(18C)?工業革命(18-19C)西方與其他(the west and the res) t社會學理論中的東方主義(orientalism)社會學的起源孔孟之爭Montesquieu(1689-1755):empiricismComte(1798-1857):order and progress社會學革命(sociological revolution)與時代精神(zeitgeist)社會學譜系的不斷重寫不同的圣典化(canonizatio

4、n)策略Classic Masters? 馬克思 Karl Marx (1818-1883)? 迪爾凱姆Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)? 齊美爾 Georg Simmel (1858-1918)? 韋伯 Max Weber (1864-1920)迪爾凱姆(涂爾干)? 主要著作：? 社會分工論(1893)必讀：第二版序言、第三卷第一章“失范的分工”? 社會學方法的準則(1895)第一章“什么是社會事實”? 自殺論(1897) Book Two:5, “失范型自殺”? 原始分類(1903)? 宗教生活的基本形式(1912)“導言”、第二卷第七章? 基本關懷：? 現代世界中共同

5、道德力量的衰落The declining strength of the common morality in the modern world 迪爾凱姆(涂爾干) ? 核心概念? 社會事實(social facts)：Durkheim? 社會團結(social solidarity)? 失范 (anomie)Homo duplex (the duality of human nature)迪爾凱姆(涂爾干)? 自殺 (suicide)為何研究自殺：自殺的增多乃現代社會病態之體現;自殺乃 personal &private之事，若能在此最為不利的情況下證明集體生活仍然支配著個人的命運，

6、豈不妙哉!Durkheim根據原因來劃分類型:integration: lowegoistic suicide（利己型自殺）（整合） high altruistic suicide（利他型自殺）regulation: lowanomic suicide（失范型自殺）（管制） high fatalistic suicide（宿命型自殺）Integration refers to the degree to which collective sentiments are shared Regulation refers to the degree of external constraint on

7、 people.迪爾凱姆（涂爾干）? Religion: God or Society? The sacred and the profane? Beliefs, rites,church:A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them.? “宗教力量非他，乃氏族之集體和莫名力量耳”? Collective effervescence? Religion

8、 is society becoming conscious of itself迪爾凱姆(涂爾干)? Morality:? 現代社會的苦惱，并不集中于特定的階級，而是普遍存在于整個社會。“資本家憂心如焚，工人則不滿和憤怒”? 社會問題不是經濟問題，而是道德問題。組織起來，提高覺悟，將個人融合于具有道德權威的集體? 調整現代工業失范狀態最有限的手段是市民社會中的職業聯合體( occupational associations)? 道德教育的要素：紀律(discipline)精神對社會群體的依戀(attachment to group)自主(a sense of autonom)或知性精神y:wi

9、llingly accepted by virtue of enlightened assent韋伯? 主要著作：? 新教倫理與資本主義精神(1904-5)(必讀：導論、第五章“禁欲主義與資本主義精神”)?經濟與社會(1922)(社會學的基本概念)? 學術生涯與政治生涯(1918)?儒教與道教(1916)(“導論”，“結論”)? 民族國家與經濟政策? 韋伯政治著作選(On Socialism)? 基本關懷：? 西方文明的理性化(rationalization)(世界歷史進程？)核心概念：? 理解 (verstehen)Understanding, interpretation,explanat

10、ion? 理想類型(ideal type)"An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those one-sidedly emphasi

11、zed viewpoints into a unified analytical constructIn its conceptual purity, this mentalconstruct . . . cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality. It is a utopia" .? 價值 (values)? Value-free/neutrality, value relevance韋伯? 社會行動(social action)：? 工具理性行動(instrumentally rational)? 價值理性行動(value-r

12、ational)?情感性行動(affectual/emotional)is determined by the emotional state of the actor.?傳統性行動(traditional)is determined by the actor s habitual and customary ways of behaving.? 社會分層(social stratification)Multidimensional:economic order Classsocial order status political order party? 權威類型(authority)：?法

13、理型權威(rational-legal)科層制?傳統型權威(traditional)家長制?感召型權威(charismatic，克理斯瑪)? 理性化 (rationalization)?實用理性，理論理性，實質理性，形式理性? 社會的麥當勞化(McDonaldization)? "Not ideas, but material and ideal interests, directly govern men's conduct. Yet very frequently the 'world images' that have been created by &

14、#39;ideas' have, like switchmen, determined the tracks along which action has been pushed by the dynamic of interest"? 宗教與資本主義的崛起? 新教倫理與資本主義精神選擇性親合(elective affinity)意外后果(unintended consequence) s? 中國的宗教與資本主義韋伯論題(Weber thesis)的局限齊美爾? 主要著作：? 論社會分化(1890)? 社會學：社會交往形式研究(1908)? 社會學的基本問題(1917)? 貨

15、幣哲學(1900)? 基本關懷：? 現代性的診斷(成伯清：格奧爾格·齊美爾：現代性的診斷，1999年)核心概念：? 社會互動(social interaction)? 形式社會學(formal sociology)：? 社會幾何學(social geometry)數量(number)二人關系(dyad) &三人關系(triad)距離(distance)?社會類型(socialtypes)? 窮人( the poor)? 外來人(the stranger，異鄉人，陌生人)?社會形式(Socialforms)支配-從屬(superordination-subordination)

16、? Subordination under an individuala pluralitya principle? 文化悲劇(cultural tragedy)? 客觀文化與主觀文化(objective vs. subjective)? 貨幣哲學? 最純粹的工具形式變為目的本身? 一切歸諸how much，量化，還原? 理性、計算的性格? 非人格化，物化社會學的專業化與學院化? 兩次世界大戰與社會學中心的轉移從歐洲到美國美國社會學重鎮的遷移芝加哥學派的衰落常春藤聯盟的崛起美國社會學鐵三角：Parsons-Merton-Lazarsfeld現代主要流派? 功能主義(functionalism)

17、? Parsons, Merton?沖突理論(conflict theory)? Dahrendorf, Coser?交換理論(exchange theory)? Homans, Blau? 符號互動論(symbolic interactionism)功能主義帕森斯( Talcott Parsons， 1902-1979)的主要觀點：系統或抽象功能主義? 意愿行動理論(voluntaristic theory of action)：規范性取向(normative orientation)行動者 (actor)可能的手段(end)情境situation( conditions、 means)功能

18、主義? 模式變項(pattern variables)? 普遍主義-特殊主義(universalism-particular ism)? 先賦-自致(ascription-achievement)? 情感性-情感中立性(affectivity-affective neutrality)? 專一性-擴散性(specificity-diffuseness)? 自我取向-集體取向(Self-collectivity)源于Tonnies的二分(dichotomy)：Gemeinschaft與 Gesellschaft更早 Maine: status society vs. contract socie

19、ty功能主義? AGIL 公式任何系統都需滿足四個要求，且由不同的子系統來承擔相應功能：?A：adaptation 適應行為有機體?G：goal-attainment目標達成人格系統? I ： integration 整合社會系統?L：latency 維模文化系統A? Adaptation (A). Each system exists in an environment, and must be able to adapt to this environment. In the process of adaptation, the environment is also affected a

20、nd may be adapted to the society. This is the mobilization of resources so that the system can survive and that things can be done to meet goals of the system.G? Goal Attainment (G). Each system has certain purposes associated with it. The goals of the system must be defined, means of attempting to

21、achieve these goals must be laid out, and then these goals must be achieved. Within the social system, the polity (political sphere and government) is an important aspect of this, setting and altering the goals for the society as a whole, and mobilizing actors and resources to that end.I? Integratio

22、n (I) . This is the means by which social relationships, and interrelationships among units or groups, are regulated. At the level of society as a whole, there are a variety of institutions that do this. Religion, education, the media, the legal structures police and courts all play a role. ( societ

23、al community). Where strains are great, there may be a need for social control, formal and informal sanctions, or discipline to enforce order.L? Latency (L) or pattern maintenance (P). also refers to this as the cultural- motivational system. For Parsons, A" ll institutionalization involves com

24、mon moral as well as other values . The organizations and roles that perform latent functions can be regarded as those that furnish, maintain, and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain this motivation. Parsons refers to these as fiduciary, that is

25、, founded on trust. At the level of the social system, these are schools, educational institutions, and the major institution that is concerned with the latent function is kinship and family or other forms of personal relationships.Social System? A social system consists in a plurality of individual

26、 actors interacting with each other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the "optimization of gratification" and whose relation to their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of

27、 a system of culturally structured and shared symbols (Parsons, 1951, pp. 56).功能主義? 進化變遷范式(a paradigm of evolutionary change)?分化(differentiation)?適應力提升(adaptive upgrading)?吸納(inclusion)?價值普遍化(value generalization)發展性突破(developmental breakthrough)進化三階段：primitive, intermediate, modern功能主義默頓( Robert K.

28、 Merton,1910-2003)：經驗功能主義“社會學先生”中層理論(middle-range theory,中程理論)功能分析范式(functional analysis)：正功能、反功能、無功能(eu-/ dys-/non)顯功能、潛功能(manifest-/ latent-)功能替代(functional substitutes)Theories of the middle range? Sociological theory: logically interconnected sets of propositions from which empirical uniformitie

29、s can be derived.? Theories of the middle range: theories that lie between the minor but necessary working hypotheses that evolve in abundance during day-to-day research and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to develop a unified theory that will explain all the observed uniformities of social beh

30、aviour, social organization and social change.A paradigm of functional analysis?1. The item(s) to which functions are imputed.a standardized(patterned andrepetitive) item?2. Concepts of subjective dispositions (motives, purposes)?3. Concepts of objective consequencesA paradigm of functional analysis

31、? Functions are those observed consequences which make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system; and dysfunction, those observed consequences which lessen the adaptation or adjustment of the system. -The empirical possibility of nonfunctional consequences.A paradigm of functional analysis?

32、 Manifest functions are those objective consequences contributing to the adjustment of adaptation of the system which are intended and recognized by participants in the system.? Latent functions,correlatively, being those which are neither intended nor recognized.A paradigm of functional analysis?4.

33、 Concepts of the unit subserved by the function?5. Concepts of functional requirements (needs, prerequisites)?6. Concepts of the mechanisms through which functions are fulfilled.?7. Concepts of functional alternatives(functional equivalents or substitutes)A paradigm of functional analysis?8. Concept

34、s of structural context (or structural constraint) :? The interdependence of the elements of a social structure limits the effective possibility of change or functional alternatives.?9. Concepts of dynamics and changeA paradigm of functional analysis?10. Problems of validation of functional analysis

35、? It requires a system review of the possibility and limitations of comparative (cross-cultural and cross-group) analysis.?11. Problems of the ideological implications of functional analysis.功能主義? 自我實現的預言(self-fulfilling prophecy )? unintended consequences of social action? 越軌行為(deviance)適應模式文化目標制度化

36、手段遵從+創新+-儀式主義-隱退主義-沖突理論達倫多夫(Ralph Dahrendorf,1929)辯證沖突論? “走出烏托邦”? 有關社會的沖突模型(conflict model of society)揭示社會的另一方面強調沖突、強制、變遷(conflict, coercion, constraint, change)，而非共識、均衡和穩定(consensus, coherence, equilibrium, stabilit，y integration,harmony)沖突理論? “后資本主義社會”? 資本的解體(the decomposition of capita)l? 勞動力的解體(

37、labor)? 新中間階級的發展(new middle class)?社會流動的增長(social mobility)?平等程度的提高(the growth of equality)沖突理論? 社會沖突的根源：? 權威分配的不平等結構性產生的沖突( structurally generated conflict)ICA：強制性協作團體(imperatively coordinated association)? 社會沖突的形成：利益，潛在利益，顯現利益準群體(quasi group)，利益群體，沖突群體利益群體形成的條件(技術、政治、社會、心理)沖突理論? 社會沖突的程度? 強度(intens

38、ity)影響因素：沖突關系的重疊程度權威關系與其他報酬分配的相關程度社會流動的程度? 烈度(violence)影響因素：社會經濟的剝奪程度沖突的調節程度沖突理論科塞( Lewis Coser,1913-2003) theories of conflict? 兩種變遷? 系統內的變遷( change within a system)緩慢的、邊緣性的和調適性的變遷更為激進和徹底的變遷：新體制，新的政治體系決定何種變遷最有可能發生的主要社會結構性變量，是控制機制的靈活性? 越是僵化，越有可能導致系統的變遷；? 越是靈活，越有可能導致系統內的變遷? 沖突具有重要的功能? 解決沖突的努力可能導致整合沖突

39、理論? 沖突容許群體調整自身的結構? 復興現有的規范或者引入新的規范? 沖突可以充當一種估量現有群體的相對力量的方式，從而強化或者調整權力的平衡? 有助于在群體之間建立聯盟? 有助于維持群體邊界? 創造安全閥機制( safety-valve institutions)沖突理論? 兩種類型的沖突：realistic conflict vs. nonrealistic conflict? 現實性沖突手段工具性工具適用性手段替代? 非現實性沖突目的表意性攻擊滿足感對象替代其他因素：情感喚起，人格投入，意識形態等社會交換理論霍曼斯(George Homans,1910-1989)行為主義交換論? “恢

40、復人的地位”( Bringing men back in )? 經濟人+心理學之鴿=經濟鴿？? 解釋、演繹、還原的策略? 基本概念 社會交換理論? 一般命題系統：? 成功命題? 刺激命題? 價值命題?剝奪-滿足命題?攻擊-贊同命題? 理性命題(A = pV)Actor = a rational profit seekerPower-dependence relations? Richard Emerson (1925-1982)? Powe-rdependence Relations Am e,r ican Journal of Sociology,1962,Vol. 27.? A depen

41、ds upon B if he aspires to goals or gratifications whose achievement is facilitated by appropriate actions on B s part.? Power resides implicitly in the other s dependency.Power-dependence relations? Dependence (Dab.) The dependence of actor A upon actor B is (1) directly proportional to A mo tivsa

42、tional investment in goals mediated by B, and (2)inversely proportional to the availability of those goals to A outside of the A-B relation.Power-dependence relations? Power (Pab). The power of actor A over actor B is the amount of resistance on the part of B which can be potentially overcome by A.?

43、 Pab=Dba? Pba=Dab? Power advantage=Pab-PbaPower-dependence relations? How to reduce power advantage? Cost reduction? Balancing operations? Cost reduction is a process involving change in values (personal, social, economic) which reduces the pains incurred in meeting the demands of a powerful other.P

44、ower-dependence relations? Balancing operations:? Pab=DbaV V? Pba=DabBalance can be restored either by an increase in Dab or by a decrease in Dba.Power-dependence relations? Four operations:?1. If B reduces motivational investment in goals mediated by A;withdrawal?2. If B cultivates alternative sour

45、ces for gratification of those goals;extension of power network?3. If A increases motivational investment in goals mediated by B;emergence of status?4. If A is denied alternative sources for achieving those goals.coalition formationPower-dependence relations? Coalition formation? The organized group

46、? Role-prescriptions? Group norms? Authority? Emergence of status?The extreme importance of thea vailability factor in dependency as adeterminant of status position and the values employed in status ordering. 社會交換理論布勞( Peter Blau, 1918-2002)結構交換論 or dialectical exchange theory? Exchange and Power in

47、 Social Life, 1964? An important effort to theoretically integrate large- and small-scale sociological issues.? From elementary forms of behavior to complex social structure 社會交換理論? 從人際交換到社會結構到社會變遷個人之間的交換交易地位和權力的分化合法化和組織反抗和變遷? 基本過程：吸引-競爭-分化-整合復雜社會結構中以規范和價值作為調節機制符號互動論? 視角的重要性? New perspective means n

48、ew reality? 符號互動論作為一種視角的特點：? 并不專注于個體及其人格特征，也不專注于社會結構或社會情境如何導致個體行動，而是專注于互動的性質，即個人之間發生的動態的社會活動。社會是由互動的個體組成。個人和社會皆因互動而變化? 人被理解為是在“現在”行動。起作用的不是過去所發生的一切，而是現在所發生的一切。過去通過記憶作用于當下的情境，未來作為目標而影響現在。? 互動不僅是指個體之間，還指個體之內所發生的一切。人們在一個他們界定的世界中行動，這種界定既受與之互動的他人的影響，也是自己界定的結果。? 符號互動論所描述的人類，要比其他視角所呈現的人類，更具主動性和不可預測性。人類可以根據

49、自己有意識的選擇來指導自己的行動，評估自己和他人的行動，然后可能修正自己的行動路線。人在一定程度上是自由的。? 重要概念：? 鏡中我 ( looking-glass self) (Cooley)? 自我發展階段( Mead)?玩耍階段-重要他人( significant other)?游戲階段-概化他人( generalized othe)r? 主我 ( I )， 客我 ( Me)? 情境定義 ( definition of the situation)? 托瑪斯定理( Thomas theorem)If men define situations as real, they are real

50、 in their consequences.擬劇分析(dramaturgy)戈夫曼(Irving Goffman， 1922-1982)? 社會即舞臺，社會行動即表演(performance)? 印象整飾(impression management)? 分析框架：? 劇本期望，劇班，前臺，后臺，觀眾隔離，理想化表演，誤解表演等等常人方法學(ethnomethodology)加芬克爾(Harold Garfinkel,1917)? 對于主流社會學的批判：文化傀儡( cultural dopes)? 可說明性 ( accountability)? 索引性 ( indexicality)?索引性表

51、達( indexical expression)?客觀性表達( objective expression)?反身性(reflexivity )新理論運動(new theoretical movemen)t發展線索(G Ritzer的敘述框架)：? The 1960s: Sociology, a Multiple Paradigm ScienceThe social facts paradigm (structural-functionalism, conflict theory)The social definition paradigm (action theory, symbolic interactio