四、名詞解釋：Parole話語：itreferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.itistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.itisconcrete,referstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.itvariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.Appliedlinguistics應(yīng)用語言學(xué)：findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsasrecoveryofspeechability.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisknownasappliedlinguistics.Reference（所指）語義:Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Illocutionaryact言外行為：theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention,itistheactpreformedinsayingsomething.Regionaldialect地域方言：itisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Ithasbeenfoundthatregionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,riversandswamps.LAD(LanguageAcquisitionDevice)語言習(xí)得機(jī)制：Itwasdescribedasanimaginary"blackbox"existingsomewhereinthehumanbrain.CA（ContrastiveAnalysis）對(duì)比分析：startingwithdescribingcomparablefeaturesofthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,CAcomparestheformsandmeaningsacrossthesetwolanguagestolocatethemismatchesordifferencessothatpeoplecanpredictthepossiblelearningdifficultylearnersmayencounter.Neurolinguistics（神經(jīng)語言學(xué)）：itisthestudyoftworelatedareas：languagedisordersandtherelationshipbetweenthebrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthebrainisstructuredandwhatfunctioneachpartofthebrainperforms,howandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.Predicationanalysis述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析：ItisproposedbytheBritishLinguistG.Leech.Thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Cross-culturalcommunication(interculturalcommunication)跨文化交流：itiscommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.Cross-association互相聯(lián)想：InEnglishwesometimesmaycomeacrosswordswhicharesimilarinmeaning.Theirspellingandpronunciationarealsoalike.Thecloseassociationofthetwoleadstoconfusion.Suchinterferenceisoftenreferredascross-association.12)CPH（CriticalPeriodHypothesis）臨界期假說：aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.①ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.②Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictor’sandGenie’scases)13)Prescriptive（grammer）規(guī)定語法：ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor"correctandstandard"behaviourinusinglanguagetoellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.14)Performance語言運(yùn)用；言語行為：theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.15)Duality雙重性(doublearticulation)：languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Thelowerorbasiclevelisofsounds,whicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelcanbemeaningful.五、問答題：Chapter1Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage?Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butitstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem,thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.6.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTheyaresimilarintwoaspects:thedefinitionandthecontentofstudy.Ononehand,Saussuredefineslangueastheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparoleastherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Wecanseethatlangueandcompetencebothrefertotheabstractissue,conventionsandknowledge,andparoleandperformancebotharetheiractualrealization,theconcreteuse.Ontheotherhand,inSaussure’sopinion,whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparoleasparoleistoovariedandconfusing.AndthisisthesameasChomsky.Hethinkslinguistsshouldstudytheidealspeaker’scompetence,nothisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?Arbitrariness:thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguage.Productivity:Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsofitsusers.Duality:languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.4)Displacement:Languagecanbeusetorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5)Culturaltransmission:Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtonextthroughteachingandlearningratherthanbyinstinct.Chapter23.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesound[l]8.what’saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].Allophone—thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsPhoneisdifferentfromphoneme,Thephoneme/l/canberealizedasdark/l-/andclear/l/,whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/Chapter5Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?Thenamingtheory命名論wasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor;wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenwordsandthingsistherelationshipofnaming.Theconceptualistview概念論:Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisisbestillustratedbythesemantictrianglesuggestedbyOgdenandRichards:Contextualism語境論:RepresentativelyproposedbytheBritishlinguistJ.R.FirthwhohadbeeninfluencedbythePolishanthropologistMalinowskiandtheGermanphilosopherWittgenstein.Itholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context-elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.…themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage.Behaviourism行為主義論:BasedoncontextualistviewbyBloomfieldwhodrewonbehavioristpsychologyindefining“meaning”.Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguagefromasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?成分分析和把音位分析為區(qū)別性特征有何相似之處？Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures,theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures;itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaningsimilarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeatures,aphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditsthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.Chapter65.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.AccordingtoAustin'snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Let'slookatanexample:"Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen."Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakerishisutteranceofthewords“you”,“have”,“door”,“open”,etc.thusexpressingwhatthewordsliterallymean.Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor,ormakingacomplaint,dependingonthecontext.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearergetsthespeaker'smessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstotellhimtoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.8.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Trytogiveyourownexamplestoshowhowfloutingthesemaximsgivesrisetoconversationalimplicature?答：CooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:(1)Themaximofquantity數(shù)量原則E.g.A:WhenisSusan'sfarewellparty?B:Sometimesnextmonth.Itisfloutingthemaximofquantity(2)Themaximofquality質(zhì)量原則E.g.A:WouldyouliketojoinusforthepicniconSunday?B:I'mafraidIhavegotaclassonSunday.(3)Themaximofrelation相關(guān)原則E.g.A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Tom?B:Wehadabasketballmatchwiththeotherclass.(4)Themaximofmanner方式準(zhǔn)則E.g.A:Shallwegotsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Chapter9WhatdoyouthinkofSapir-Whorfhypothesis?Giveexamplesorprooftosupportyourpointofview.Sapir-Whorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople'sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizetheirexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.TherearemainlytwodifferentinterpretationsaboutSapir-WhorfHypothesis:astrongversionandaweakone.Thestrongversionbelievesthatlanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior,theweakoneholdsthattheformerinfluencesthelater.Iagreewiththeweakone.Hereisanexample,thewordsnow.ForEskimosnowisextremelyimportantandsocrucialtolifethateachofitsvariousformsandconditionsisnamed.InEnglish-speakingcultures,snowisfarlessimportantandsimplewordsnowusuallysufficestheneed.Whensomeneedsbecomemorespecific,however,longerphrasescanbemadeuptomeettheseneeds:“cornsnow”,“finepowdersnow”,and“driftingsnow”.Chapter10Amongthelanguageacquisitiontheoriesmentionedinthischapter,whichonedoyouthinkismorereasonableandconvincing?Explainwhy.Behaviouristview---languageisbehavior,languagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.Inthistheory,imitationandpracticearepreliminary(開始),discrimination（識(shí)別）andgeneralizaitionarekeytolanguagedevelopment.Aninnatist(語法天生主義者)view----Inthehumanbrain,thereisanimaginary“blackbox”calledLanguageacquisitiondevicewhichissaidtocontainprinciplesthatareuniversaltoalllanguage.ChildrenneedaccesstothesamplesofanaturallanguagetoactivatetheLAD,whichenablesthemtodiscoverhislanguage'sstructurebymatchingtheinnateknowledgeofbasicgrammaticalsystemtothatparticularlanguage.laterChomskypreferthisinnateendowmentasUGandholdthatifchildrenarepre-equippedwithUG,thenwhattheyhavetolearnisthewaysinwhichtheirownlanguagemakeuseoftheseprinciplesandthevariationsinthoseprincipleswhichmayexistintheparticularlanguagetheyarelearning.3)Aninteractionist(互動(dòng)主義者)view----languagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplay,betweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichchilddevelops.Inaword,Behavioristsviewsoundsreasonableinexplainingtheroutineaspects,theinnatistaccountsmostreasonableinexplainingchildren'sacquiringcomplexsystem,andtheinteractionistdescriptionconvincinginunderstandinghowchildrenlearnandusethelanguageappropriatelyfromtheirenvironment.Chapter111、Towhatextentissecondlanguagelearningsimilartofirstlanguagelearning?Canyoulistsomeprooffromyourownlearningexperience?(pleaselistyourownexperience.)Thestudiesonthefirstlanguageacquisitionhaveinfluencedenormouslythoseonthesecondlanguageacquisitionatboththeoreticalandp