1、THEHISTORYANDSIGNIFICANCEOFTHECUREOFFANSSTUDIESXIRAO(Departmentofhumanities!ITChicago,Illinois60616)Abstractthisarticletracestheimage,activities,andmeaningoffandom.Fanswereportrayedasdeviantcreaturesuntilthelate1980s.Thisimagewasclarifiedwhenpeoplelookedintofansandtheircreativeworks.Scholarsrealized

2、thatfansproductivelygeneratedcreativeproductsbasedonthegivenmaterials,whichreflectedthesocialexperienceofthecreators.Therefore,fandomwassoonunderstoodasawayoffanstoresistthedominantcultureinthe.society【KEYWORDSTVFANDOMFANDOM;DOMINANTCUIURERESIST作者簡介:饒曦(199),女，湖北十堰人,美國伊利諾伊理工學院人文學院信息架構理學博要從事信息架構科學研究。I

3、NTRODUCTIONIn2014,peoplesent576,000tweets,onaverage,duringeachepiThdewoikingDead(Nielsen,2014a).AMCsshow,whichisseenby14millionviewers,reached4,934,000peopleonTwitter(Nielsen,2014b).Also,2,491,473uniqueusersonFacebookmade4,477,454activities(includingposts,comments,likes,shares)relatedtoBreakingBadar

4、oundtheepisodeairingonSept29,2013intotal(FacebookforBusiness,2014).Audiencesareclearlyusingsocialmediatobeinvolvedwithtelevision.Whatwedontknowis(1)whataretheydodn(2)whydoesanyofitmatter?ThispaperaddressesthesetwoquestionsbysituatingcfinrentsocialmediapracticesinthecontextoffanstudiesfTomthelate20th

5、centuryandexaminingtheimpactsafOalsmediabehaviorshaveontelevisionproductionandonfansthemselves.ABriefHistoryofTVFandomImagesofdeviancehaunttheliteratureonTVfandom(seeMiller,1989;Johnson,1987;Caughey1978).Untilthelate1980s,researchersconsistentlycharacterizedfansasfanaticsorpotentialfanatics,meaningt

6、hatTVfandomwasseenasexcessive,borderingonderanged,behavior(Jenson,1992;Jenkins,1992).AsJenson(1992)summarizes,researchersdiscussdeviantfandomastwotypes:theobsessedindividualandthehystericalcrowd.Inthe“obsessedindividual”characterization,individuals,usuallyloners,enterintoanintensefantasyrelationship

7、withaparticularceleHhyythenachievepublicnotorietybystalking,threatening,orkillingthecelebrity(e.g.,RobertJohnBardo,whokilledactressRebeccaSchaefferafterstalkingherforthreeyears).AnarticfepleWeklyonSchaeffersmurderblamesTVshowsintheUnitedStatesforinfluencingfanobsession,“Thiscountryhasbeenembarkingfo

8、ralongtimeonafielexperimentintheuseofviolenceonTVvWgiventhelosersinlifeorsexararechancetoexpresstheirdominance”(Lewis,1992).Fanswereregardedasmindless,immatureconsumerswhodonthaveany“important”thingstodoindailylifeexceptingtheirlivestotheuselessknowledgeoftheprograms.Forinstance,WilliamShatnSafTreka

9、me,said,“Getalifd”tofansduringanappearanceoSaturdayNightLii(Jenkins,1992).The“hystericalcrowd”characterizationreferstogsuxupasscreamingteenswaitingtoglimpsearockstar.“Fivethousandshrillfemalevoicescomeinoncue.Thescreechingreachestheintensityofajetengine.WhenElviscomesstridingoutonstagewithhisbutchyw

10、alk,thescreamssuddenlyescalate(Wis,1992,p.99).”Masshysteriaisinevitable.Itisannouncedandratifiedteensexualityandamplifiedteensexualfrustrationalmostbeyondendurance.Whetherindividuallyoringroups,fanswereseenasbeingirrational,outofcontrol,deviant,excessivecreatures.Thoughsomeliteratureadmitstheexisten

11、ceof“normal”fans,researchersexpressconcernthat“normal”fanswilleventuallybecomeobsessedlonersorhystericcrowdmembers(Jenson,1992).ThisworrycomesfromquestioningthefilsiestodistinguishappropriateandinappropriatebehaviorsdisplayedonthetelevisionscreenandtoseparateTVprogramsfrom.tHfcjnEalityvencurrentlyno

12、rmalfansarepotentiallydangerous.Meanwhile,fansarelookedasagroupofpeopledwInothavea“reallife”becausetheyarespendingsomuchtimeandmoneyonsupportingmeaninglessTVshows.Thenegativestereotypeportrayedbythemediashowsfansasmindlessconsumers,culturaldupes,andsocialmisfits(Jenkins,1992).Manyoftheseargumentsabo

13、utfandomconcentrateondeviant,excessivebehaviorsbydistinguishingfansfrom“us.”JensonpointsoutthatscholarssuchasSchickelexplainsthatthe“forces”thatfunctioninarousingthederangedbehavioroffansalsoaffecttiusamuchmildermeasure(Lewis,1992).Thesestatementsdevelopadeviantimageoffans,whichisaderangedversionof“

14、us.”FandomisconceivedasapathologyofthesocietywaytocompensatethefansincompletepersonalityThisthreateningpgativeimageoffandomlasteduntilearly1990swhenscholars(e.g.,Jenkins,1992;Jenson,1992;Bacon-Smith，d1992ithe“other”conceptionin“fans”vs.“us.”Byreplacing“fans”with“us,”Jenson(1992)proposedthenewassumpt

15、ireifWTheargumentappliesthefandomlabelto“us”or“we”byarguingthatasaficionados,professors,andmanyotherroles,wearealsofans.Fansarenot“others”tobecondescendedtoandmaligned,fansare“us.”Underthisframing,fanshavebothlivesandarenotdeviantbecausetheyarenotjustsomedistantotherbutratheourselvesMoreover,Jenkins

16、(1992)pointsoutthatbybeingrepresentedas“others,”fanswhichamounttoaprojectionofanxietiesabouttheviolationofdominantculturalhierarchies,donotpolluteasanctionedculture.Thiscondescensiontowardfansisaresultofclassism,midoghnykindsofhostilityoraggressioninthesociety(Jenson,1992).Distinguishingfansfromusby

17、givingthemanincomplete,fragilepersonalityblesustoclaimthatwearenottheseunstable,vulnerablepeople.Unlikethedeviant,obsessedfaneareintouchwithrealityAfterJenkins,andothersimilarargumentssuchasBacon-Smith(1992),theunderstandingofTVfandominacademicliteraturehasgraduallychanged.Deviant,obsessedconception

18、soffansarereplacedby“normal”descriptionsasresearchersstarttoacceptthatirrationalityisnotanecessarycharacteristicoffandom.Researchersrealizethatthemisunderstandingoffandomisinpartcausedbythecondescensionofpeoplewhowanttoannouncetheirculture“clean”(Tulloch&Jenkins,1995).Thischangeinimageoffandomisrega

19、rdedasthephaseof“fandomisbeautiful”(GraySandvoss,&Harrington,2007).Fandomisre-codedfrompathologicaltocreative,thoughtful,andproductive(e.g.Fiske,1992;Jenkins,1992).Attheturnoftheconturycholarsstartedtoemphasizethepoliticalmeaningoffandom:fandomisawayofresistingthe“powerbloc”(thetermmostnotablymentio

20、nedinFiske,1989)inthesociety(Hills,2002).However,sometheoryemphasizestheproductivepracticeoffanstoomuchwhilerarelymentioningthosefanswhomerelywatchtheshowanddonotengageintheirowntextualproduction(e.g.,fanvids,fanfictions).Thereforethisstatementrunstheriskofisolatingtheactive“fans”from“us.”Also,thepo

21、liticalmeaninguoffnationisquestionedbecausefansthemselvesprobablyarenotawareofthepoliticalmeaningwithintheiractivities(Hills,2002).Moreover,fromthedevelopmentoftheInternet,fanscanapproachthediscussionaboutthefanobjectalmosteverywherethroughcellphones,laptops,blackberries,etc.Hence,thespecificformsof

22、5/Members/fcoppa/clips/kandy-fongs-first-slideslow/view2http;/esc，apade-c，on.livejournal.c，om/43584.htmlsocialinteractionthattakeplacebetweenfanshavebecameanevermoreintegralpartofeverydaylifeinmodernsocieties(Grayandvoss,&Harrington,2007).Tosummarize,theimageoffanshaschangedfromdeviantcreaturestonor

23、malpeople.Additionallyfandomisregardedasresistancetothemainstreamculture.WiththeInternet,fanscanapproachtextsbyconvenientandimmediatewaysindifferentsituations,whichmakesfandomemergeasanintegralaspectofourdailylives.Thesechangesvaryaspeoplelookintofansactivitiessuchascreatingfanfictionsandmakingfanvi

24、ds.whatDotvfansdo?Fanscreateandsharefanfiction.Attheverybeginning,fansshareknowledgeormakenewmeaningscollectivelybypassingtextualproductssuchaslettersthroughmailororderingindividualstoriesonloanfromacentrallibrary(Jenkins,1992),orpassinghandtohandatconventions(Jenkins,2006).Inthiswayomeofthefanswrit

25、estoriesandthenothersonlyneedtopaythecostofpostagetoapproachthosetexts,anditisencouragedthatreadershavetheirowncopiesbythismeans.Fansalsomakefanzinestoconveytheirfanfictions,reviewsofshows,lettersfromthesubscribers,interviewsfromconventionswithwritersorartists,etc(Bacon-Smith,1992).Thefirstsciencefi

26、ctiThefanzine,Comet(seefigure1),waspublishedin1930bytheScienceCorrespondenceClubinChicagoandeditedbyRaymondA.PalmerandaWerDennis(Danesi,2013),whichisanonprofessionalandnonofficialpublicationproducedbyfansofaparticularculturalphenomenonforthepleasureofotherswhosharetheirinterest.Throughthismedium,man

27、yfansturntowriteforzinestosupporttheirzine-buyinghabits(Jenkins,1992).Asaresult,writers,editors,andreadersinteractwitheachotherdirectlyandperpetuatethefandom.Fansorgnizeand/orattendconventions(alsoknownas“cons”).Aconventionisaprgatheringoffansataspecificplaceandtime.Aconventioncanbeusedtoshareknowle

28、dgeoftheshow,exchangethefanfictionsorfanzines,orcreatetextstogether.Itcanfocusonaspecifictopicorfandom,e.g.,Vividcon,a125-personconventiondevotedspecificallytofannish,viddingieralconventionforallfandomsoftheirtype(media,slash,etc.:e.g.Escapgetaeralslashcon,opentoallslashfansFanlore,2013.1 HYPERLINK

29、/ /AsthepopularizationofcomputersandthedevelopmentoftheInternet,newtoolsincludingblogs,forums,fandiscussiongroups,mailinglists,andsocialnetworksenableTVfanstoarchive,annotate,appropriate,andrecirculatemediacontent(Jenkins,2004).WiththeriseofvideoeditingsoftwaresuchasiMovAfterEffectsfanscontributetoc

30、reatevariousartworks,e.g.vidding(alsoknownasvid).Viddingisaformofgrassrootsfilmmakinginwhichclipsfromtelevisionshowsaresettomusic.Viddingsusemusicinordertocommentonoranalyzeasetofpreexistingvisualstotellnewstories,inwhichmusicisusedasaninterpretivelenstohelptheviewertoseethesourcetextdifferenCyppa,2

31、008).Thefirstviddingappearedin1975;afannamedKandyFongshowedaslidecalled“WhatDoOUDoWithaDrunkenVulcan?”StarTretonventionthatusedarecordingofLeonardNimoysingingaJoniMitchellsong(UJ0SbyCoppa,2008).Besidesallthecreativeworks,fansalsostartmovementsandtrytodirectlyintervenewithTVproduction.Forinstance,in1

32、967,andagaininthe1967-68season,fansoftheTVpogamproducedoveramillionletters(seefigure2)toNBCtoprotestthethreatenedcancellation,resultingintherenewaloftheshow(Brower,1992).Inthedigitalage,fanscanquicklystartagrassrootsmovementtosaprogramorprotestunpopulardevelopments(Jenkinasc200point,fansfoundtheHOna

33、lfeMfOurMotheunacceptablewhenitairedonMarch30,2014,andviewerstooktosocialmediatotrashthepolarizinending(Romano,2014).SomeevencreatedtheirownendingednawhimDmiTjrgotmarriedandlivedahappylifetogether(OBrien,2014).Facingtheharshcomments,creatowitterttoBaySatooktoTthereasoning(seefigure3)behindtheendinga

34、ndreleasedanalternatefinalefivemonthslater(Desta,2014AsanardentmemberoftheStarTrekUndergroundWatchersSociety,IagreewiththeNewOrleansladyinprinciple.But,Mrs.Tortorich,itisthekissofdeathtotellanyonethataprogramisintellectuallystimulating!Ifthisismadeknown,thenetworkwillfiretheproducer,andthesponsorswi

35、llfadelikeacheappairofpants.No!Thereisabetterway,fellowTrekkies.WemusttellthenetworkthatShatner,NimoyandKelleyaredolls,realDOLLS!TellthesponsorstheshowisthenewestkindofCAMP!ThentellthepublicthatiftheylistenclosethedialogisreallyDIRTY!Thisshouldpleaseeverybody,andthoseofuswhoarehookedontheshowcoulden

36、joyitanotheryear.Besides.Mr.SpockreallyisSomethingElse.-JaneAyers,Evansville,Indiana.NBCshouldnleventhinkofcancelingStarTrek,themostliterate,originalandthought-provokingseries.TVsimageisalreadybadlytarnished;shouldStarTrekbecanceled,itsimagewillbeshatteredbeyondrepair.-RodOsbourne,Paterson,NJ.IfNBCk

37、illsStarTrekmy132seventh-gradeboysvowtouseaphaseronourNBCaffiliate.N.H.Zimmer,Metairie.LA.DearPeacock:IftheEnterpriseleavesitsHollywoodorbit,Illpluckoutyourfeathersonebyone.DavidHillman,Burbank,CA.Figure2.LettersamplesfrStarTrekfansFigure2.FansshowdisappointmentXWV.W-|XV!-IwaH-E.II*_IfilB-EfrIlwF:Ri

38、brtrcdzz-mwtAr-T-cr-tiMovieisvideoeditingsoftwapplicationsoldAppleIncAdobeAfterEffectsisadivisuale.ffe.,tmotiongraph,andcompositingpplicatiolevelopedbAdobeSystenandusedinthepost-producticprocesscfilmmakinandtelevisionproduct.onCarterBaysCar由田呂y呂WFolllowWechosetheendingwechoseandwestandbyit.Butwelove

39、dtheotherversiontoo.5:55PM-4Apr2014Figure3.CarterBaysexplainsthefinale582RETWEETS635FAVORITES熾WToconclude,therearethreecommonkindsofthingsthatfansdo.Themostbasiconeiscollectingknowledgeoftheprogram,includingreadingfanfictions,readingfanzines,andsearchingtheprogramrelatednewsonline.Thesecondoneisshar

40、ing,orsaypropagatingknowledgeoftheprogram,suchasretweetinganeventoftheprogram.Thelastandthemostinfluentialoneismakingmeaningoftheprogram.Thisincludesanykindsofcompositions,suchaswritingfanfictions,viddings,ormakingmeaningfulcommentsonline.Fromtheseactivities,theactualTVproductionisoftenaffected.WHYD

41、OFANSMATER?NowweknowwhatTVfansdo.Butwhywouldallthesebehaviorsmatter?Whatcanweachievebyanalyzingthefaiadtivities?Thissectionexplainswhyfansmatterandwhatwecanleafromunderstandingfandom.Thetwomainreasonsfansandtheirbehaviormatterarethatthey(1)championthedisadvantagedasamanifestationofthesocialhierarchi

42、esand(2)influencetelevisionproduction.3.1FanCommunityWeknowthatfansareparticipatoryinpoachingthematerialsonTVshows.Duringtheprocessofredressingthedeviantimageoffandom,scholarstooktheirparticularinspirationfromdeCerteaus(1984)distinctionbetweenthestrategiesofthepowerfulandthetacticsofthedisempowered.

43、Fans,asvulnerablegroups,areusingguerrilla-styletactics(Fiske,1989)toresistthemainstreamculture(GraySandvoss,&Harrington,2007).Highfieldandhiscolleagues(2013)findthatpeopleaddresssocialissuesbyusingtheeventopicasavehicletocatchtheattentionofawideraudience.Inthiscase,fandomisregardedasresistancetothed

44、ominantculture.Therefore,fandommattersbecauseitrepresentsandchampionsthosedisadvantaged,particularlythosedisempoweredbyacombinationofgender,age,class,andrace,withinsocietyInaddition,Jenkinss(1992)canonTextualPoachersonsidersfandommorethanamereactofbeingafan,butacollectivestrategformcommunitiesthatev

45、adestheintendedmeaningofthe“powerbloc”(Fiske,1989)representedbypopularmedia.SubsequentworksincludingBaym(1999),Bacon-Smith(1992),andJenkins(2006)haveillustratedthatfandomisoneofthosespaceswherepeoplecollaboratewithinaknowledgecommuAityiowledgecommunitysocalledacommunityofpractice,isagroupofpeoplewho

46、shareaconcernorapassionforsomethingtheydoandlearnhowtodoitbetterastheyinteractregularly(Wenger,1998).Thisgroupcanevolvenaturallywiththemembersbomnoninterestinaparticulardomainorarea,oritcanbecreatedspecificallywiththegoalofgainingknowledgerelatedtotheirfield.Itisthroughtheprocessofsharinginformation

47、andexperienceswiththegroupthatthememberslearnfromeachother,andhaveanopportunitytodevelopthemselvespersonallyandprofessionally(Lavoe&gW1991).Asacommunityofpractice,fanssharetheirknowledgeoftheprogram,sometimeswithathoughtof“showingoffforoneanother”(Fiske,1992),inorderetxpandacommunitysproductivecapaD

48、fferentfromsimplysharingknowledge,fansaremotivatednotsolelybyapleasureinknowingbutalsoapleasureinexchangingknowledge(Jenkins,2006).Fancommunitiesproduceproductsincludinglettersthatfansusetocommunicateorcreatetogether,fanfictionsthatutilizethesamecharactersintheoriginalshowbutmakedifferentmeanings,zi

49、nes,andotherkindsofcreativeworks.Theseproductsfunctionbothascreativeoutletsandastoolstopropagatqgroupsidentity(Jenkins,2006).Thenewmeaningscreatedreflecttheexistingsocialissuesofthisdisempoweredgrouporthewaythingsreallyareintheworldinwhichthewriteractuallylives(Sandvoss,2005;Bacon-Smith,1992).LikeBa

50、con-Smith(1992)pointsout,womentalkabouttheirstrugglefordignityintheirrelationshipsintheirfanfiction,eventhoughfewtelevisionstoriesaboutwomenseemtopostulateinstitutionaldignityorequalstatusforwomen.Fromthisperspective,fansmatterasresistancethatchampionthedisadvantaged.Thoughtheviewthatthinkingfandoma

51、sresistanceprovidesastrongreasontostudyfandom,itsnecessarytoexaminetwomajorreasonswhythinkingfansascommunitiesattractincreasingscrutinyFirst,itstoocommonforfanstobedismissedas“others.”Thecharacteristicsofproductivityandcollectivityinturnappeartosetthepracticesoffansapartfromother,lessproductiveaudie

52、ncegroups.Yet,thisubiquityoffandomchallengesnotionsdorfansexceptionalanddistinctfrom“normalaudiences”(Fiske,1992).However,assummarizedbySGraJvoss,andHarrington(2007),the“other”isalwaysareflectionofourselvesandisimbuedwithsignificantdesireandlongingofus.Hence,fansstillmatteSecond,thepoliticalmeaningo

53、ffanproductionmaybeoverstated.Hills(2002)questionsthatfansmaynotrecognizethepoliticalmeaningoftheirproductionasapartofthepopularculturementionedbyFiske(1989).3.2FansandtheTVIndustryThepublicrecognitionandevaluationofbeingafanhasprofoundlychangedsincethemid-1990swhenwehavemovedfromaneraofbroadcasting

54、tooneofnarrowcastingi(dvass,&Harrington,2007).Fanaudiencesarewooedbyculturalindustrieswiththeriseofnewmedia.Treatingfansasspecializedyetdedicatedconsumershasbecomeacenterpieceofmediaindustriesmarketingstrategies.AsfansbecomemainstreamconsumersandsupportersoftheTVshow,whetheraTVprogramsucceedsornot,t

55、oacertainextent,dependsonthechoiceoffans.Fanscaninfluencewhatshowswillair.In1981,BuffyJohnson,amotheranHOfanofStreetBluesorganizedaletter-writingcampaign,pleadedwithpotentialsponsors,andurgedjournaliststocovertheshowintheircolumnstosupporttheHilAStreetBluefansoCagney&Laceywereinspiredbytheproducerandsavedtheshowthroughletter-writingcampaign(Brower,1992);afterfa