1、新編簡明英語語言學教程第二版第1-3章練習題參考答案Chapter1IntroductionP131. Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage?答：Linguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenaturea

2、ndrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,thelinguistshastocollectandobservelanguagefactsfirst,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullypr

3、ovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.2. Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?答：Thema

4、jorbranchesoflinguisticsare:(1) phonetics:itstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication;(2) phonology:itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication;(3) morphology:itstudiesthewayinwhichlinguisticsymbolsrepresentingsoundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;(4) syntax:itstudies

5、theruleswhichgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;(5) semantics:itstudiesmeaningconveyedbylanguage;(6) pragmatics:itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.3. Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?答：Thegeneralapproachthustraditiona

6、llyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoasatraditionalgrammar."Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Tradit

7、ionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modemlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.4. Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?答：Inmod

8、emlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Becausepeoplebelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.5. Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisti

9、csgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylang

10、uageisalwaysainvented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativesp

11、eakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythearevised“recordofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthent

12、ic.6. HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?答：Saussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChoms

13、kylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.7. Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?答：Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageis

14、arbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Fourth,languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.8. Whatarethemainfeaturesof

15、humanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?（2.2語言的識另性特征）美國語言學家C.Hockett提出了人類語言的12種識別性特征，其中最重要的識別性特種有5種：即語言的任意性、創造性、二重性、移位性和文化傳遞性。這些特征是所有人類語言所共有的。人類語言的識別性特征是動物“語言”所不具有的。1）任意性：它指音與義之間沒有邏輯聯系。比如說，不同的語言使用不同的音指相同的事物。2）創造性：語言的創造性主要表現在語言使用者能夠

16、以有限的語言規則為基礎說出和理解無限的句子，包括他們以前從沒有聽說過的句子。3）二重性：它指語言在結構上存在兩個層次：低層次和高層次。在低層次是一個個沒有意義的音，如/p/,/g/,/i/等，但是這些處在低層次的沒有意義的音可以依照一定的語言規則結合在一起形成語言體系的高層次，即：有意義的單位，如詞素，單詞等。4）移位性：移位性指人類可以使用語言來談論過去的事情，現在的事情或將來的事情；語言也可以用來談論我們客觀世界中的事情，或假想世界中的事情。總之，語言的使用可以脫離交際的直接情景語境，從而不受語言時空距離的影響。5)文化傳遞性：文化的傳遞性是指，雖然人類習得語言的能力有遺傳因素的原因，但是

17、語言體系具體內容的習得不是通過遺傳來傳遞的，而是要通過后天的學習來獲得。答：Themainfeaturesofhumanlanguagearetermeddesignfeatures.Theyinclude:1) ArbitrarinessLanguageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.2) Pro

18、ductivityLanguageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.3) DualityLanguageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowero

19、rthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.4) DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,pr

20、esent,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat"displacementwmeans.5) CulturaltransmissionWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylang

21、uagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.9.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?Thinkofyourownexamplesforillustration.答：Threemainfunctionsareoftenrecognizedoflanguage:thedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunction,andthesocialfunction.Thedescriptivefunctionisthefunctiont

22、oconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.Forexample:"Chinaisalargecountrywithalonghistory.”Theexpressivefunctionsuppliesinformationabouttheuser'sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.Forexample:"Iwillnevergowindow-shoppingwithher.”Thesocialfun

23、ctionservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Forexample:“Weareyourfirmsupporters.”Chapter2PhonologyP301. Whatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechism

24、oreprimarythanwriting,forreasons,pleaserefertotheanswertothefifthprobleminthelastchapter.2. Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?答：VoicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.3. Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtran

25、scriptiondiffer?答：Thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededa

26、ndusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbollisusedforthesoundslinthefourwordsleafli:f,feelfi:l,buildbild,andhealthhel0.Asamatteroffact,thesoundlinallthesefour

27、soundcombinationsdiffersslightly.Thelinli:f,occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledadearl,andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the1infi:landbild,occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear1asin"leaf”.Itiscalleddark?andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic?isusedtoindic

28、ateit.Theninthesoundcombinationhel0,thesoundlisfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound0,itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadentall,andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic、isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedashel0.Anotherexampleistheconsonantp.Weallknowthatpispronounce

29、ddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesoundpispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,thepsoundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,thepsoundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallrais

30、ed"h"isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedasph?tandspitistranscribedassp?t.4. HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?答：Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonants

31、canbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasalsandglides.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velarandglottal.5. WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?答：Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,ce

32、ntral,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,weneedtoapplyanothercriterion,i.e.theopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassif

33、icationofvowelsistheshapeofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunfoundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionofa:,arerounded.Itshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedlips.6. A.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddes

34、criptions:1) voicedpalatalaffricate2) voicelesslabiodentalfricative3) voicedalveolarstop4) front,close,short5) back,semi-open,long6) voicelessbilabialstopB.Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:1)t2)l3)?4)w5)?6)?答：A.(1)?(2)f(3)d?:(6)pB.(1)voicelessalveolarstop(2)voicedalveolarliquid(3)vo

35、icelesspalatalaffricate(4)voicedbilabialglide(5) back,close,short(6)front,open7. Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,land?,phandp,aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?答：(1)Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectofla

36、nguagethespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,on

37、theotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.(2) Aphonologistwillbemoreinterestedinit.Becauseoneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindoutrulethatgovernsthedistributionofland?,phandp.8. Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfrom

38、aphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?答：Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemei

39、ndifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/l/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark?,clearl,etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.9. Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.答：Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlang

40、uagearecalledsequentialrules.TherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswithalorar,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.ThatiswhylbiklkbiareimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbyacopying

41、"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighboringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy"tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.Weallknowthatnasalizationisn

42、otaphonologicalfeatureinEnglish,i.e.,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatvowelsinEnglisharenevernasalizedinactualpronunciation;infacttheyarenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,thei:soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsth

43、ei:soundisfollowedbyanasalnorm.Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasalninsomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasalnassumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtomaadjectivetomakethemeaningofth

44、ewordnegative,e.g.discreetindiscreet,correctincorrect.Butthensoundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.d,isanalveolarstop,butthensoundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.7;thisisbecausetheconsonantthatf

45、ollowsitisk,whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesoundn,weareacopying"afeatureoftheconsonantthatfollowsit.Deletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisnogsoundalthou

46、ghitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,thegrepresentedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deleteagwhenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsignsignature,resignresignation,phle

47、gmphlegmatic,paradigmparadigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded.10. Whataresupra-segmentalfeatures?Howdothemajorsupra-segmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?答：Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsupra-seg

48、mentalfeatures.Themainsupra-segmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanoun,toaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Tonesarepit

49、chvariationswhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Chapter3Morphologyplacinga"+"betweeneachmorphemeP401

50、. Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyandthenext:a.microfilee.telecommunicationb. bedraggledc. announcementd. predigestion答：a.micro+filec.announce+mentf.forefathere. tele+communicate+iong.psycho+physicsg.psychophysicsh.mechanistb.be+draggle+edd.pre+digest+ionf.fore+fatherh.mechan+ist2

51、. Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:-orsuffix:-ormeaning:thepersonorthingperformingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:actor,“onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc."translator,“onewhotranslates答：(1

52、)suffix:-ablemeaning:somethingcanbedoneorispossiblestemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:acceptable,“canbeaccepted”respectable,“canberespected”(2) suffix:-lymeaning:functionalstemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:freely."adverbialformof'free'"quickly,"adverbialformof'quick'".(3) suffix:-eemeaning:thepersonreceivingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:employee,“onewhoworksinacompany”interviewee,“onewhoisinterviewed”3. Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypeso