1、Chapter 4 （第四章） syntax（語法學）Phonetically describedn n voiced voiceless diphthongn Fricative stop n Dental velarMorphologically describednThe luck y boy sFunctional lexical lexicaln derivational inflectional In a limited wayn boys the lucky n lucky boys the nASK: With these words, how many grammatical

2、 sentences can we construct? ne.g. the, the, student, hates, film, new, disgusting. nthe people, frightened, in the room, the boySYNTAXnSYNTAX is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships betw

3、een elements in sentence structures.Syntactic units nHierarchical system: n(morpheme-)word- phrase-clausesentence ne.g. I met Tom. n a (handsome American young) man n a (handsome American young) man who always spoke a very heavy dialect.Phrase nPHRASE is a single element of structure containing more

4、 than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.nthe three tallest girls (nominal phrase)nhas been doing (verbal phrase) nextremely difficult (adjectival phrase) nto the door (prepositional phrase) nvery fast (adverbial phrase)CLAUSEnA constituent with its own subject

5、and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a CLAUSE.n(1) I want to know why. n(2) Having an influential father is often advantageous. n(3) Do you know where I come from?nfinite and non-finite clause Sentence na. Definition: nSemantically, the minimal form that expresses a complete tho

6、ught nFormally, not included in any larger linguistic form (Bloomfield )布龍菲爾德n布龍菲爾德（Leonard Bloomfield 18871949）美國語言學家。生于芝加哥。1906年畢業于哈佛學院。他不滿足已取得的成績，比以前更加刻苦地學習，計劃向更高的目標攀登。終于在1909年在芝加哥大學獲得博士學位，圓了他的博士夢。19091913年，先后在辛辛那提大學和伊利諾大學教德語。這期間，他深感自己的德語水平有限，滿足不了教學與研究的需要，期待著有朝一日到德國進修學習。他的愿望很快就實現了。1913年底，他到了德國，潛心

7、學習德語。由于受歷史比較學家布魯格曼等一大批語言學家的影響，他的思想和學術水平得到了很大提高。回國后，在俄亥俄州立大學、芝加哥大學、耶魯大學等美國著名的大學任教授，培養出了大批人才。 布龍菲爾德對菲律賓的他加祿語及印歐語系的語言進行過大量的研究，并做出了巨大的貢獻。他曾同別人聯名倡議設立美國語言學會。由于他做了大量的卓有成效的工作，1924年該學會正式成立，翌年創辦會刊語言雜志。這個雜志后來發展成了國際上最具權威的語言學科物之一。1933年，他出版了自己的力作語言論，受到了世界語言學領域的重視，同時該書成為以后20年間美國語言學家的必讀書，其中對形態學的貢獻尤為突出。 The traditio

8、nal approach presents a binary division in terms of structure as follows:simple Sentence complexnon-simple compoundThe functional approach gives a framework like this: Yes/no Interrogative Indicative wh- DeclarativeSentence Jussive (order giving) Imperative Optative (wish expressing)c. Sentence type

9、s in English ni) SVC Mary is a nurse/poor. nii) SVA Mary weighs 120 pounds. niii) SV Mary came. niv) SVO Mary cheated me. nv) SVOC Mary called me Jim. nvi) SVOA Mary put her child down. nvii) SVOO Mary lend him some moneyn夸克(Randolph Quirk 1920 )早年曾在倫敦大學、耶魯大學和密執安大學受過良好的教育，獲得文學碩士、哲學博士、文學博士學位。他除有一段時期任

10、德哈姆大學英語教授外，歷任倫敦大學學院研究員、英國語言文學奎因講座教授、倫敦大學校長。他是英國言語矯治委員會主席、英語叢書主編、“英語用法調查”研究項目的負責人。近年并榮任英國社會科學院(British Academy)院長。他曾在美國、歐洲、蘇聯、非洲、印度、澳大利亞等地作過關于英語語法問題的講演。 夸克的主要著作是他和格林鮑姆、利奇、斯瓦特維克合作編寫的當代英語語法(A Grammar of Contemporary English,1972)和英語語法大全(A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language,1985)。此外，他還與格林鮑姆合編了大學英

11、語語法(A University Grammar of English,1974)。 n 夸克的其它著作有：英語語法、英語古詩中的讓步關系、英語的用法、論英語、英語教學、語言的可接受性調查英語用法與態度研究的征詢試驗、韻律特征系統與副語言特征系統等。Syntactic relations nPositional relation (word order, horizontal relations, syntagmatic relations-Hjemslev; chain relations-Halliday) n你怎么打了他？ n你怎么打他了？ n他怎么打了你？ n他怎么打你了？ n他打你怎

12、么了？ n約翰咬狗。 n狗咬約翰。葉爾姆斯列夫（Louis Hjelmslev）n葉爾姆斯列夫（Louis Hjelmslev），丹麥語言學家。哥本哈根學派的創始人和主要理論家。1899年10月3日生于哥本哈根，卒于1965年5月30日。1917年進入哥本哈根大學學習比較語言學史，1919年發表關于Oscan語銘文的論文并獲大學金質獎。1923年畢業于哥本哈根大學，1937年起回母校任教，主持比較語言學系。19261927年，葉爾姆斯列夫開始接觸索緒爾的理論，在巴黎跟隨梅耶研究普通語法學。1928年，出版第一部重要著作普通語法學原理。這本書描寫語言的范疇，明顯地反映出索緒爾關于語言是符號系統的

13、觀點和E.薩丕爾的概念范疇的影響。后來又出版格的范疇（2卷，19351937）。1931年，葉爾姆斯列夫發起成立哥本哈根語言學會，自任會長，人們稱之為哥本哈根學派。1932年發表題為波羅的語言研究的博士論文，主要討論波羅的語言的歷史音位學問題。和H.烏爾達爾（19071957）合作，研究語音學和音位學，寫出了音聲學原理，1935年在第二次國際語音學家大會上提出。接著，他們把音聲學發展成一般性理論，創立語符學，1936年在國際語言學家大會上提出。1943年，葉爾姆斯列夫用丹麥文出版語言理論基礎一書，這是語符學理論的代表性著作，講語言的共時研究。1935年發表了論格的范疇-普通語法研究之一。同一年

14、，在倫敦語音學大會上，他和烏爾達爾一起提出了語言表現分析的理論，形成了他的語言理論的雛形。1943年，他寫成語言理論導輪（英譯本名為Prolegomena to a Theory of Language），完成了他的語言理論建設。這是哥本哈根學派的一本最權威的代表作。1956年，他親手創建了哥本哈根大學語言學和語音學學院，并擔任院長。1965年5月30日，葉爾姆斯列夫去世，享年65歲。 nThus, syntagmatic relation refers to the sequential or linear arrangement of words in a language. nAny l

15、anguage has its patterns of arrangement.n Word order determines syntactic relations and sentence meaning, esp. for those analytical languages like Chinese. Syntactic relationsnRelation of substitutability (associative relations-Saussure; paradigmatic relations-Hjemslev; vertical relations; choice re

16、lations-Halliday) n I II IIInThe boy saw the dog.nThe girl chased the cat.nThey ran after the girl.nJohn kicked the ball.nMary read the book. We can say that the phrases in each column are in paradigmatic relation.Syntactic Function-subjectnGrammatical subject-the noun that corresponds to the verb (

17、predicate), can be checked by tag- questions. He visited the President privately. (didnt he?) nLogical subject (semantic subject)-doer The book was written by Shakespeare. nPsychological subject-the first major constituent (1) Yesterday I was robbed. (2) His carelessness I cant bear.nAnalyze the fol

18、lowing sentence: nSlowly Tom was helped out of the house.Semantic relations vs. syntactic relationsna. Agent A as subject： nThe FBI was tapping the telephones. nb. Dative D as subject： nJack likes the gift. nc. Instrument I as subject： nThe (Presidents) veto stopped the program. nA dagger killed the

19、 touristCompare n1). John used a stick to scare the burglar off. n2). John scared the burglar off with a stick. n3). A stick scared the burglar off. Semantic relations vs. syntactic relationsnd. Causative as subject： nThe crisis hit rich and poor alike. nA hurricane killed eight people. nc.f. 1). Th

20、e nations economy has been wrecked in the crisis. n 2). The crisis has wrecked the nations economy. ne. Locative as subject： n The new stadium seats 80,000.ObjectnOBJECT is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “re

21、ceiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into DIRECT OBJECT and INDIRECT OBJECT.nMother bought a doll.nMother gave my sister a doll. Ind. Obj. Dir. Obj.ObjectnIn some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case for direct object, and the dative case

22、 for indirect object.nIn English, “object” is recognised by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).nMother gave a doll to my sister.nJohn kicked me.ObjectnModern linguists (e.g. Chomsky, Halliday) suggest that object refers to such an it

23、em that it can become subject in a passive transformation.nJohn broke the glass. (The glass was broken by John.)nPeter saw Jane. (Jane was seen by Peter.) ObjectnAlthough there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.nH

24、e died last week.nThe match lasted three hours.nHe changed trains at Tianjin. (*Trains were changed by him at Tianjin.)PredicatenPREDICATE refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. nI

25、t usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.nThe boy is running.nPeter broke the glass.nJane must be mad!CategorynThe term CATEGORY refers to the defining properties of these general units: nthe categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and co

26、untability; nand of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.NUMBERnNUMBER is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. nIn English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plu

27、ral, such as dog: dogs. nNumber is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.NUMBERnIn other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.nle cheval royal (the royal horse) n

28、les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)GendernGENDER displays such contrasts as “masculine: feminine: neuter”, “animate: inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes. nWhen word items refer to the sex of real-world entities, we are talking about natural gender. The opposite is grammatical gender.

29、 nThough there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases, for instance, in Latin, ignis fire is masculine, while flamma flame is feminine.GendernEnglish gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of

30、nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.nhe: she: it nprince: princess nauthor: authoressGendernIn French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles. nbeau cadeau (fine gift) nbelle maison (fine house)nLe cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)nLa maison est belle. (The h

31、ouse is beautiful.)GendernSometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:nle poele (the stove)nla poele (the frying pan)nle pendule (the pendulum) nla pendule (the clock)CasenThe case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.nIn Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”