Chapter6PragmaticsSomebasicnotionsSpeechacttheory

Principleofconversation

Cross-culturalpragmaticfailureChapter6PragmaticsSomebasi1Whatispragmatics?Pragmaticsstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.Whatispragmatics?Pragmatics2Theviewoftraditionalsemantics

Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.語(yǔ)言的意義被認(rèn)為是內(nèi)在的、固有的，即依附于語(yǔ)言自身的特征。因此，詞的意義和句子的意義都應(yīng)該從語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用中孤立出來(lái)加以研究。Theviewoftraditionalsemant3Pragmaticsvs.semanticsWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.Pragmaticsvs.semanticsWhate4Context

Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.ContextItisgenerallyconsid5Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning(句子意義與話(huà)語(yǔ)意義)Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisabstractandisolatedfromcontext.Ifthesentenceisutteredinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,itbecomesanutterance.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Sentencemeaningvs.utterance6TherelationshipbetweenthetwoThemeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Therelationshipbetweenthet7Speechacttheory(言語(yǔ)行為理論)ItwasproposedbytheBritishphilosopherJohnAustin(約翰·奧斯汀)inthelate50’softhe20thcentury.Accordingtothespeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.Accordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakmightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,

illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Speechacttheory(言語(yǔ)行為理論)Itw8locutionaryact(言?xún)?nèi)行為):theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.(傳達(dá)字面意義)illocutionaryact(言外行為):theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.(表明說(shuō)話(huà)意圖)perlocutionaryact(言后行為):theeffectoftheutterance.(話(huà)語(yǔ)產(chǎn)生的效果)locutionaryact(言?xún)?nèi)行為):theac9Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts(塞爾對(duì)言語(yǔ)行為的分類(lèi))JohnSearle:AmericanphilosopherlinguistOneofthecontributionsSearlehasmadeishisclassificationofillocutionaryacts.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories:Searle’sclassificationofspe10Fivegeneralcategories1.

representatives(闡述類(lèi)):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.Inotherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhimselfbelievestobetrue,suchasstating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing.Examples:P83:(6-9)(6-10)Fivegeneralcategories1.

repr112.

directives(指令類(lèi)):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,suchasinviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering.Examples:Openthewindow!You’dbattergototheclinic.Yourmoneyoryourlife!Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?2.

directives(指令類(lèi)):tryingto123.

commissives(承諾類(lèi)):committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.(對(duì)未來(lái)的某個(gè)行為作出承諾)

Thatistosay,whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderacertainobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalcases.Examples:Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.3.

commissives(承諾類(lèi)):committi134.expressives(表達(dá)類(lèi)):expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating.Examples:I’msorryforthemessIhavemade.It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.

4.expressives(表達(dá)類(lèi)):expressi145.declarations(宣告類(lèi)):bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.Examples:Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Ifireyou!5.declarations(宣告類(lèi)):bringin15Indirectspeechacts(間接言語(yǔ)行為)ItwasproposedbyJohnSearle.AccordingtoSearle,whenaspeakerisusingindirectlanguage,heisperformingtwospeechactssimultaneously:primaryspeechact(首要言語(yǔ)行為)andsecondaryspeechact(次要言語(yǔ)行為).Theprimaryspeechactisthespeaker’sgoalofcommunicationwhilethesecondaryspeechactisthemeansbywhichheachieveshisgoal.Example:P85:(6-28)Indirectspeechacts(間接言語(yǔ)行為)I16Principleofconversation

(會(huì)話(huà)原則)PaulGrice(格賴(lài)斯),anAmericanphilosopherandlogician,holdsthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Twokindsofimpliedmeaningorimplicature:conventionalimplicature(規(guī)約含意)andnon-conventionalimplicature(非規(guī)約含意).particularizedconversationalimplicature(特殊會(huì)話(huà)含意)---shouldbeinferredbythehearerwithreferencetothecontextofcommunication.Principleofconversation(會(huì)話(huà)原17CooperatePrinciple(CP)合作原則GeneralPrinciple:P87

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

在參與交談時(shí)，要使你說(shuō)的話(huà)符合你所參與的交談的公認(rèn)的目的或方向。CooperatePrinciple(CP)合作原則G18FourmaximsofCP:Themaximofquantity(數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則)Themaximofquality(質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則)Themaximofrelation(關(guān)系準(zhǔn)則)Themaximofmanner(方式準(zhǔn)則)

FourmaximsofCP:Themaximof19Themaximofquantity(數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange)

你所說(shuō)的話(huà)應(yīng)包含(當(dāng)前交談意圖)所需要的信息Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

所說(shuō)的話(huà)不應(yīng)包含超出需要的信息Themaximofquantity(數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則)Ma20Themaximofquality(質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要說(shuō)自知是假的話(huà)Donorsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

不要說(shuō)缺乏根據(jù)的話(huà)Themaximofquality(質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則)Do21Themaximofrelation(關(guān)系準(zhǔn)則)Berelevant.要有關(guān)聯(lián)性Themaximofrelation(關(guān)系準(zhǔn)則)Be22Themaximofmanner(方式準(zhǔn)則)Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免表達(dá)晦澀Avoidambiguity.避免歧義Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).

要簡(jiǎn)練(避免不必要的冗繁)Beorderly.要條理清晰Themaximofmanner(方式準(zhǔn)則)Avoi23Conversationalimplicature(會(huì)話(huà)含意)Conversationalimplicatureoccursonlywhenthemaximsare“flouted”.

Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation.

Examples:P88.Conversationalimplicature(會(huì)話(huà)24Cross-culturalpragmaticfailure

(跨文化語(yǔ)用失誤)Pragmaticfailurereferstocommunicationbreakdownresultingfrombeingunabletoreallyunderstandeachother.Pragmaticfailuresoccurswhenthespeakerfailstouselanguageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommuni