Cｈapteｒ４4.１sｙｎtactic（句法的)rｅｌaｔｉoｎs４.1.1ｐoｓitiｏｎalrelａtioｎ(位置關系)Ｆorｌanguagｅtofulfｉｌlitscommuｎｉcativeｆunction,ｉtmｕsthavｅａwaytomarkthegｒammatiｃaｌroｌｅsofｔheｖａrｉouｓphrａｓethatcanoccurinacｌaｕse．Positｉｏｎａｌreｌａtionｏrwoｒdorｄerreferstｏtheseｑｕential(有序的)aｒrａｎgemeｎｔｏfwordsinalanｇｕage.Posiｔiｏnａｌrelａtionareaｍanifesｔaｔion（表現)ofonｅaspｅctofsyntaｇmatｉｃrｅlatioｎsWｏrｄorderiｓamongtｈｅthｒｅeｂasicｗays(woｒｄordergeｎｅticandclassificａtioｎ）ｔｏclassｉfｙlａnｇuａgeｗｏｒｄs．ＳixpoｓsiｂlｅtypeｓoflａｎguａgeＳVOVSOSＯVOVSＶOSEｎgliｓhｉｓＳVO.４.1．2rｅlaｔioｎｏfsubstｉｔutabiｌity(可代替性)Firｓｔlyrelatｉonｏｆsubsｔitｕtabｉlityrｅfeｒｓtoclasseｓorsetｓofwoｒｄssubstitutabｌeｏfeaｃhotheｒgrammatiｃaｌlyiｎsｅntｅncewiththeｓamestruｃｔure.Ｓecondｌyiｔreferstｏｇroupｓofｍorethanｏｎｅwｏrｄｗｈiｃhmａｙbｅｊｏｉｎtlｙsｕｂstitｕtablｅgrammａtiｃalｌｙｆorasinｇlewordoｆapａrtｉｃularset.ThｉsｉｓｗhaｔSａussurｅcalledassociative(聯想的)rｅlａｔiｏｎsorinHｊemslev’spａｒadigmatic（縱聚性的)relａtioｎ．4．１.3rｅlationofcｏ-occurrence（共現）Meansｗordsoｆdifｆｅｒeｎｔseｔsofcｌauseｓmaypｅrmitprｒｅquirｅｔheocｃurｒenceｏfawｏrｄofanothersetorclasstｏfｒｏｍasｅntenｃeoraparｔｉculａrpartofaｓenｔencｅ.Tｈｕsｒｅｌａｔｉｏnｓoｆco-occｕrrｅnceparｔlｙbelｏngtｏsyntagmatiｃrａtionspartlytｏｐaraｄiｇｍaticｒelations．4.2ｇｒamｍaticalcoｎｓtructioｎaｎditｓcｏnsｔituents4．2.1ＧｒammaticalcoｎstructｉｏnAnysyntaｃtｉcstrinｇｏfwordsｒangingfromsentencesoｖerphｒaｓｅsstructuresｔocertaincomplｅxlexｅｍｅs（詞位)4.2.2iｍmedｉａtecoｎstitｕents(直接成分)S

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(（ｔｈe)(apple））))2.3EndｏｃeｎtricandExocｅｎｔricConsｔｒｕctｉｏnsEndocentricconstｒuctｉoｎisonewｈosｅdiｓtｒibuｔioｎisfunctiｏnａｌlyeqｕiｖalenttotｈａtoｆｏｎeormorｅofitscoｎstｉｔuｅnts,ｉ.e.,aｗoｒdorａｇrｏupoｆwｏrｄｓ,ｗｈichservｅｓasａdｅfinablecｅntreoｒhｅad.Ｕｓualｌｙnounphraｓeｓ,verbｐhrasｅsandａｄjecｔivepｈraｓeｓbｅloｎgtoendocｅntrｉctypｅsbecaｕsｅｔhｅconsｔiｔuentitemsａresubordinaｔetｏtheHｅad．4.２.３.ＥｎdｏcentｒicａndExoｃentricＣonstructions4.２.3.1Ｅndｏceｎtｒic(相信結構）Ｅnｄoceｎtriｃcｏnsｔructioｎｉsonewｈoseｄisｔｒibutionｉsfｕnctionallyeqｕivaｌｅnttoｔhaｔofｏneormoｒeｏfｉｔｓcoｎsｔｉtuents,i.ｅ.,awｏrdoragrｏupoｆｗordｓ,whichsｅｒvesaｓadeｆinaｂｌｅcenｔreorhead.Usuallynoｕnphrasｅs,veｒbpｈrasesandａdjecｔiｖepｈrasｅsbｅｌongtoenｄoｃeｎtrｉctｙpesbeｃaｕsetｈeconstituentitemｓａｒesｕborｄiｎａtetoｔheＨead.４.2.3．1Exocｅntric（并列結構）Ｅxoｃeｎtrｉcconstrｕctiｏｎrｅfｅrstoaｇrｏupofsｙnｔacｔicalｌｙrelatedwordｓwｈerenｏneｏftｈｅwｏｒdsｉsfunctionalｌyequivaleｎtｔothｅｇroupasaｗhoｌe,thaｔis,ｔheｒeisnｏdefinabｌｅ“Cenｔｒe”or“Head”insｉｄetheｇroup,usuallｙｉncｌudｉngthebasiｃsｅnｔｅnce,thｅpreｐositionalphrase,ｔhepredｉｃaｔe（verb+object)coｎstｒuｃｔion,andtｈｅｃonnectivｅ(be+compｌemenｔ）ｃonstｒuctｉoｎ.2.4CooｒdｉnａtｉｏnandSubｏrdinaｔionEnｄoceｎtriccｏnstructionsfａllintotwomaｉntypes，depeｎｄingｏntherelａtｉoｎbｅtwｅencｏnsｔituentｓ:Cｏｏｒdinatiｏn(并列）isａｃomｍoｎsyntａctｉｃｐａtｔｅrｎinEnglｉsｈａnｄotheｒlaｎguagesｆoｒｍedｂygrｏupinｇtogｅｔhertｗoormoｒecａteｇoriｅsｏｆthesametypewithtｈehelpｏfａcoｎjuncｔionsucｈaｓaｎd，bｕｔanｄor.CｏordinatiｏnｏfNPs:［NPthｅlａdy]or［NPthetiger]CoorｄinａtionofVＰs:［VPgotothｅlibrａrｙ]and[VPｒeａdａbook］CoordinａtｉonofPＰs:[PPdｏｗｎthｅｓtaiｒｓ］and[PPoutｔhedoor］ＣoｏｒdｉnaｔiｏnofＡＰs：[APquiｔｅｅxpensiｖe]anｄ[ＡPveｒｙbeauｔifuｌ]CoorｄinatioｎofSs:［SJohnloveｓMａｒy]ａｎd[SMarylｏｖeｓJohｎtoo].Suｂorｄｉnaｔion（從屬)ｒeferstｏｔhｅｐrｏceｓｓorreｓultoflｉnｋinglinguｉｓticunitssothａttｈeyｈａvediffｅrenｔsyntａｃticｓtaｔus,oｎebeiｎgdeｐendenｔｕpontｈeoｔｈer，anｄｕsuaｌｌyaconstitｕentoftｈeotheｒ.Ｔｈesｕborｄｉｎatｅconｓｔituentsarewoｒｄｓwhicｈｍodiｆｙｔhｅheａd.Conｓequｅntｌy,theｙcanbecallｅdmoｄifiｅrs.Ｃlauｓescaｎbeusedasｓｕborｄinateconstｉtuents.Ｔherearｅthreｅbaｓictyｐesofsubｏrdinaｔeclauｓes:4.3.Ｓyｎｔacｔic(句法)FuｎctionThｅsyntactｉcfunctionｓhowsｔhｅrelationshipｂｅtweeｎalinguisticｆormａndｏtheｒparｔｓoftheｌiｎguｉsticｐaｔｔernｉnwｈicｈitisuｓed.Namｅsoffｕnctionsareｅxpｒessedinteｒｍｓｏfsubjeｃts,obｊects,pｒｅｄiｃaｔｏrｓ,modifiers，compｌemｅnts，etc.4.3.1SubjecｔIｎＥngｌｉsh,ｔhesｕbｊｅctofaseｎtenceisofｔensaidtoｂethｅａgent,orｔhedoerｏｆtheactｉon，whｉletｈeｏbjectisｔheperｓｏnorthingaｃteduponbythｅageｎt．Inorｄertoａccｏuntfｏrtｈｅcaseofｓｕbjectinpaｓsiｖevoice,weｈavetｗooｔｈerterms“gｒammaticalｓubjeｃt”ａnｄ“logｉcalｓubject”ＷorｄｏrｄeｒSubjectorｄinarilｙｐrｅceｄｅstheverｂｉntheｓtatｅment:Pro-forｍsThefｉｒsｔａnｄｔhirdpersｏｎprｏｎｏunsinEnｇlishapｐｅarinaspｅｃialfｏｒｍwheｎthｅpronouｎisaｓｕbject，whｉchiｓnotuｓedwhenｔｈｅprｏnouｎｏccｕrｓinｏtherposiｔions:AgrｅemeｎｔwitｈtheverbＩｎthｅsimplepresenｔｔense,aｎ-sisadｄedtoｔｈｅverbwhｅnａｔhirdperｓoｎsubjectissｉｎgular,buｔｔhenumbeｒandpeｒｓonofｔheoｂjectｏranｙotｈeｒelemeｎtintｈeｓeｎｔeｎcehaveｎoeｆfｅｃtatalloｎthｅfｏrmoftｈeverｂＣoｎtentｑuｅｓｔiｏｎｓIftheｓubｊecｔｉsreｐlacedｂyaｑｕestionwｏrd(whoｏrwhat),theｒestｏfthｅsｅnｔeｎceｒemainsunｃｈａnged，asｉn4.4Ｃateｇorｙ(范疇)Thetermcatｅgｏｒｙreferstｏｔhｅdefｉｎiｎｇproｐｅrtiｅsofｔｈｅｓegｅneｒalｕｎiｔs:Cａｔｅｇoriesofthenoun:number,genｄer,caseaｎdcoｕntａbｉｌityCatｅｇorｉｅsｏftｈｅverｂ：ｔense,aspect,ｖｏice4.4.1NumberNumbｅrｉsａｇramｍatiｃａlcatｅgoｒyｕｓedｆorthｅａnalｙsｉsofwoｒdclassesｄiｓｐlayｉngsuchcontrastsassｉngular,duａl,plｕral，eｔc．4.4.2Gende(性）Ｓuchcoｎtrastsaｓ“ｍaｓcｕｌiｎe:feｍｉnine:nｅuteｒ”,“aniｍaｔｅ:inａnimate”,ｅｔc.ｆｏｒtｈeanaｌyｓisoｆwｏrdｃlasｓeｓ.4.4.3Caｓe（格）Tｈecaｓeｃａtegoｒｙｉsusedinｔheａnalysisofwordclａsｓestoidｅntiｆytｈesyntａcｔicrelａtｉonｓｈｉｐbｅtwｅenwordsinasentence.4.4.４Agrｅement．Agreemenｔ(orcoｎcoｒd)mayｂedefinｅdａstherequirementｔhattheｆoｒmsｏftwoｏrmoreｗoｒｄsofspeｃifiｃｗordclasｓesthatｓｔandinspeｃifiｃsyｎｔaｃtｉcrelaｔionshipwithoｎeaｎoｔｈersｈalｌalso,bｅcharacterizedｂythesaｍeｐａradｉｇｍａtiｃallyｍａrkeｄcａtegoｒy(orｃaｔeｇorieｓ)．４．５Phrａse,CｌauseandSentence4．５.１ｐhraｓeＰraｓeｉsaｓｉngｌeelｅｍｅntofstrucｔureconｔａiningmorethａｎｏneｗord,andlackingtｈesuｂject－predicatｅstrｕcｔuretyｐicａloｆclａusｅｓ.ClauseClauseFiniteNon-finiteInfinitiveParticipialGerundialSubjectObjectAdverbialRelativeAppositionalComplement4.5．３ＳeｎtencｅＢaｓicseｎｔenceｔypeｓ:QuirｋＳVＣ

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