年3月）——P38Africanbusinessesarereluctantemployers.AgivenfirminSub-SaharanAfricatypicallyhas24%fewerpeopleonitsbooksthanequivalentfirmselsewhere,accordingtoarecentpaperfromtheCentreforGlobalDevelopment(CGD),athinkbasedinWashington,DC.Giventhelinksbetweenemploymentanddevelopment,economistswanttofigureoutthereasonsfortheThestudycalculatesthemissingjobsbycrunchinginformationon41,000formalbusinessesgloballyfromaWorldBanksurvey.ThedatacaptureonlyasliverofwhatactuallyhappensinAfrica:nineintenworkershaveaninformaljob.Shunnedbytheformalsector,workersturntobelow-the-radaremployment—toilingonfamilyfarmsorotherwisetheernment’sreach.ButabiginformalsectormakesitharderforAfricatoreducepoverty,evenwheneconomicgrowthisstrong.Increasesin eontheproductionsideoftheeconomytranslateweaklyintohigherwagesforworkers.IndeedtherelationshipbetweeneconomicgrowthandpovertyreductionweakerinAfricathananyotherdeveloSeveralfactorsexplainAfricanbosses’reluctancetotakeonnewworkers.Oneisthatfirmstendtobeyoungerthanelsewhere,butevenolderoneshavefeweremployees.Morebroadly,Africa’sbusinessclimatediscourageshiring.ernmentofficialsinsearchoftaxesandbribestendtochaselargefirms,ratherthansmallones,saysVijayaRamachandranofCGD,becausetheyareconsideredmorelikelytocoughup.ThemanagersofNigerienandLiberianfirmswithmorethan100employeesspend14%longerdealingwithernmentofficialsthansmallerpeers.ArecentstudyfromSouthAfricarevealedthatbossesthereweredesperatetododgetheattentionsofbureaucratsandthusavoidedtakingonnewworkers.Highunitlabourcostsarealsoculpable.EmployingpeopleinAfricashouldbecheap,giventhatmanyofitscountrieshaverock- elevels.YetinhalfofAfricancountrieslabourcostsarehigherthaninChinabecauseworkersarelessproductive.Theyarenearly80%higherinAfricathanthoseinothercountriesatsimilarlevelsof e.Thatlowerscompetitivenessandmakeshiringlesslikely.Economistsdisagreeaboutthepossiblecausesofthis.Redtapeandunionisationmayberesponsible,thoughonaverageindicatorsoflabour-marketregulationarenodifferentinAfricathanelsewhere.Nonethelesstherearehorrorstories.A2012reportonSouthAfrica,whichlaystheblameongreedyunions,calculatesthattheaverageemployeeatEskom,astateownedelectricityutility,earns40%moreintermsofpurchasing-powerparitythanaGermanprofessor.Africa’scommodity-drivenexportmodelsmaybeanothercauseoflowformalemployment.Four-fifthsofthecontinent’sexportrevenuesarefromcommodities.Thatcanleadtoovervaluedcurbstheirgrowthandthusdiscourageshiring.(Africa’sbiginflowsofaidalsocontributetohigherrealexchangeratesbecausetheyresultinupwardpressureonpricesforgoodsandservicesthatarenottradedinternationally.)Changinglabour-marketdynamicscouldexacerbatethejobproblem.Some250mpeopleareexpectedtojointheAfricanworkforcebetween2010and2050.Intheshorttermmanywillgointofarming,whichemploys65%oftheAfricanlabourforce.Theagriculturalsectorstrugglestocreateenoughjobs.Inthe1990sdonorslostinterestinusingtheiraiddollarsforagriculturalinvestment.Shame:betterfarmingtechniquescouldbringunproductivelandintouseandhelpAfricashiftintohigher-value-addedcrops.AccordingtoareportbyMcKinsey,aconsultingfirm,thatcouldcreate6mextrajobsbyButagriculturalimprovementcanalsofreeuplabourtoworkinmoreproductivesectors—ifthejobsareavailable.Africaisembracingstructuralreform:arecentreportfromtheWorldBankshowsthatofthe20economiesworldwidemakingthemostprogressinimprovingbusinessregulation,nineareinSub-SaharanAfrica.Withoutfurtherimprovement,employmentgrowthinAfrica’sformalsectorwillremaindepressinglyP19《英國在亞馬遜和eBay的非歐元區損失數千萬，罪魁在于?》P23《·的心愿單:提稅與貿易保護主What(1-2):Africanbusinessesare 4.export:overvalueexchange5.changinglabour-marketHow(8):furthertheCenterforGlobalDevelopmentTheCenterforGlobalDevelopment(CGD)isaU.S.nonprofitthinkbasedinWashington,D.C.thatfocusesoninternationalItwasfoundedinNovember2001byformerseniorU.S.officialEdwardW.Scott,directorofthePetersonInstituteforInternationalEconomics,C.FredBergsten,andNancyBirdsall.Birdsall,theformerVice oftheInter-AmericanDevelopmentBankandformerDirectorofthePolicyResearchDepartmentattheWorldBank,becametheCenter'sfirst LawrenceSummerswasunanimouslyelectedinMarch2014bytheCGDBoardofDirectorstosucceedfoundingBoardChairEdwardScott,Jr.,onMay1,2014.CGDwasrankedthefourthmostprominentthinkintheinternationaldevelopmentspherebyUniversityofPennsylvania's"2013GlobalGoToThinkIndexReport".Recently,ForeignPolicyMagazine'sThink-IndexlistedCGDasoneofthetop15overallthink-intheUSA.CGD'sstatedmissionis"toreduceglobalpovertyandinequalitybyencouragingpolicychangeintheUnitedStatesandotherrichcountriesthroughrigorousresearchandactiveengagementwiththepolicycommunity.TheCenterconsidersitselftobea"thinkanddo",withanemphasisonproducingresearchthatischanneledintopracticalpolicyCGDiswellknownforleadingdebt-reliefprograms,specificallyinNigeriaandLiberia.CGDViceToddMossfirstproposedtheNigeriandebtbuy-back,whichresultedintheParisClubofrichnationsforgiving60%of$31billionofdebt.FormerCGDseniorfellowSteveRadeletadvisedLiberianEllenJohnsonSirleafandhersenioradvisorsondebtreliefandaidexchange foreign-exchangerate,forexrate,FXrateorAgio)betweentwocurrenciesistherateatwhichonecurrencywillbeexchangedforanother.Itisalsoregardedasthevalueofonecountry’scurrencyintermsofanothercurrency.Forexample,aninterbankexchangerateof119Japaneseyen(JPY,￥)totheUnitedStatesdollar(US$)meansthat￥119willbeexchangedforeachUS$1orthatUS$1willbeexchangedforeach￥119.Inthiscaseitissaidthatthepriceofadollarintermsofyenis￥119,orequivalentlythatthepriceofayenintermsofdollarsis$1/119.Exchangeratesaredeterminedintheforeignexchangemarket,whichisopentoawiderangeofdifferenttypesofbuyersandsellerswherecurrencytradingiscontinuous:24hoursadayexceptweekends,i.e.tradingfrom20:15GMTonSundayuntil22:00GMTFriday.Thespotexchangeratereferstothecurrentexchangerate.Theforwardexchangeratereferstoanexchangeratethatisquotedandtradedtodaybutfordeliveryandpaymentonaspecificfuturedate.第5篇-教育類（選自《與世界報道》2015年4月）——P191Theeconomicrecessionofthelate2000s,andthesloweconomicgrowththatfollowedit,havedrawnparticularattentiontothedecliningfortunesof eandworking-classmen,whowereparticularlyhardhitbytheseeconomictrends.Concernaboutthefateofnon-collegeeducatedmenhasledsome andauthorstofocusontheroleoftheK-12system.AuthorssuchasRichardWhitmire,ChristinaHoffSommersandPegTyrenotethat,onarangeofindicators,boysarestrugglingmoreinschoolthangirlsare.Boys’academicachievementinreadingtrailsthatofgirls.Boysaremorelikelytobesuspended,retainedingradeorplacedinspecialeducation.Theyarelesslikelytograduatefromhighschoolorenrollinandgraduatefromcollegethangirlsare.That’sthebadnews.Thegoodnewsisthatboys’academicachievementandeducationalattainmenthaveimprovedoverthepastdecade.Intheelementaryandmiddlegrades,boysareachievingathigherlevelsinreadingandmaththanatanytimesince1971.Andthepercentageofbothmenandwomenoverage25whoholdabachelor’sdegreeisalsoatarecordhigh.Nearlyadecadeago,Ireviewedthedataonboys’andachievementandeducationalattainmentandconcludedthatboysweren’tfallingbehind.Infact,boyswerengbetterthaneveronarangeofeducationalindicators.Butgirls’achievementwasimprovingfaster,causinggirlstopullaheadofboys.AnewreportfromtheBrookingsInstitution,releasedlastweek,largelyaffirmsthisysis.Italsofindssomethingnew:Boysarestartingtocatchup.From2004to2012,boysatallgradelevelsmadesignificantgainsinreading.Asaresult,boysarenarrowingthereadinggapintheelementarygrades.Whilehighschoolgirlstodayreadaboutaswellastheydidin1971,highschoolboystodaydobetterinreadingthantheydidintheearlyWhatshouldwemakeofAmongthevarietyofeducationalachievementgapsthatexistintheUnitedStates,gendergapsareuniquelyperplexing.Whenitcomestoachievementgapsbyrace,ethnicityandsocioeconomicstatus,weknowthatchildrenfromdifferentgroupsareraisedindifferentfamiliesandoftenattenddifferentschoolsthanpeersfromothergroups,andthatthesedifferencesinhomeandschoolexperiencesaccountforalargeportionoftheachievementgap.GendergapsareparticularlyvexingbecauseboysandgirlsareraisedinthesamefamiliesandattendthesameschoolsasoneThisleadstotwopossiblelinesofthinkingaboutgendergaps:Eithertheyrepresentinnatedifferencesinboys’andgirls’abilities,ortheyreflectbiasesinhowschoolsandfamiliestreatboysandgirlsthattranslateintodifferencesin Dogendergapsinreadingreflectinherentdifferencesinboys’andgirls’ability?Researchconsistentlyshowsthat,onaverage,womenperformmorestronglyintestsofverbalskillsthanmendo.Butit’snotclearifthisfindingreflectsnatureornurture.Thefactthatgendergapsfavoringgirlsinreadingexistacrossalldevelopedcountriesisapotentialpointinfavoroftheinnatedifferencetheory.Thehugevariationinthesizeofthesegapsacrosscountriesisnot.Moreover,asBrookingsreports,gendergapsinreadingdisappearinadulthood.Areschoolsbiasedagainstboys?HoffSommersconcludesthat“misguidedfeminism,”andeffortsschoolsputinplaceinthe1980sand90stoimproveeducationalequityforgirls,havehadanegativeimpactonboys’learning.Butthetiminghereisoff.Boys’achievementandother eshaven’tgottenworseduringtheperiodwhengirlshavemadeeducationalgains,they’vegottenbetter,ifnotasquicklyasthoseofgirls.Amoresubtleargumentisthatthewaypublicoperatetodayplacesboysatasystematicdisadvantaged,notbecauseofanyanimustowardsboys,butbecauseteachers,themajorityofwhomarewomen,makedecisionsaboutcurricularcontent,behaviormanagementandthestructureoftheschooldaythatignoreboys’interests,experiencesandtendencies.Thishasledtoeffortstomakeschoolmore“boyfriendly,”butmanyofthesestrategiesarebasedondubiousscience,andthereislittleevidenceontheireffectiveness.Differencesinaveragemaleandfemaleabilitiespaleincomparisontothevariationwithineachgroup.Asaresult,designingeducationalapproachesandinterventionsbasedongenderislikelytobefarlesseffectivethandesigningthembasedontheneedsofindividualstudents.Ateacherwhoisstrugglingtoimprovelearningforboysinherclasswillnotgetmuchhelpfromlearningaboutstructuraldifferencesinmaleandfemalebrains.Whatshereallyneedsareeffectivereadingcurricula,toolsfordiagnosingstudents’readingdifficultiesandresearch-basedinterventionsforstrugglingreaders.Shealsoneedstoolstohelpdifferentiateinstructiontostudentabilitiesandneeds.Andsheneedseffectivebehaviormanagementstrategies,aswellasresearch-basedapproachestohelpchildrendeveloptheirself-regulatoryskillsandabilitytofocus.Thesetoolswillhelpheraddressmanyoftheareasinwhichboyscommonlystruggle,butthey’llalsobenefitgirlswhofacesimilarchallenges.Andplentyofsquirmy,energeticlittlegirlsfacethesamestrugglescommonlyassociatedwithboysinschool.Iwasoneofthem.Wemayneverbeabletofullyunderstandandexplainthecausesofgendergapsinreading,butthatmightbeOK.Sometimes,treatingthesymptomisactuallymoreeffectivethant