1、Chapter1TheBasicConceptsofWordsandVocabulary1、TheDefinitionofaWordLexicologyfocusesonthestudyofmeaningsandoriginsofwords.Accordingtosemanticists（語義學家）,awordisaunitofmeaning.Awordisaminimal（最小的）freeformofalanguagethathasagivensound,meaningandsyntacticfunction（句法功能）.2、VocabularyAllthewordsinalanguagem

2、akeupwhatisgenerallyknownasitsvocabulary.3、SoundandMeaningTherelationshipbetweensoundandmeaningisnologic4、SoundandFormTherewasmoreagreementbetweensoundandforminOldEnglishthaninModernEnglish.Withthedevelopmentofthelanguage,moreandmoredifferencesarosebetweensoundandform.5、ClassificationofWordsNo.Class

3、ification1ByBasicWordStockusefrequency（基本詞匯）ExampleNotesThebasicwordstockformsthecommoncore（共合）ofthelanguage.Pronouns（代詞）andnumeralsaresemanticallymonosemous（單調(diào)的）andfairlylimitedintherespectofproductivity（多產(chǎn)性）andcollocability（搭配性）.Themostimportantfeatureofthebasicwordstockisallnationalcharacter.2Byn

4、otion（有無實義）3ByOriginNonbasicVocabularyArchaisms（古詞語）：thouNeologisms（新詞）：AIDSArgot（黑話）：persuader(meansdagger)TechnicalTermsContentWords（實義詞）FunctionalWordsNativeWordsBorrowedWordsDenizens（同代詞）：port、shirtAliens（非同代詞）：dcorTranslationLoans（譯借詞）:lama（喇嘛）4ByMorphologySimpleWords（形態(tài)）CompoundsandDerivedWord

5、s6、簡答1）、Whatistherelationshipbetweensoundandmeaning?Giveexamplestoillustrateit.Therelationshipbetweensoundandmeaningisarbitraryandconventional.Indifferentlanguages,thesameconceptcanbeshownbydifferentsounds.“Woman”,forexample,becomes“Frau”inGerman,“Femme”inFrenchand“funv”inChinese.Ontheotherhand,thes

6、amesoundmi:tisusedtomean“meet,meat,mete”,denotingdifferentthings.2）、Whatarethefourmajorreasonsforthedifferencesbetweensoundandform?Thefirstreason(heinternalreason)isthattherearemorephonemes（音素）thanlettersinEnglish.Anotherreasonisthatthepronunciationhaschangedmorerapidlythanspellingovertheyears.Theth

7、irdreasonsthatsomeofthedifferencesmorecreatedbytheearlyscribes.Thefourthreasonistheborrowing.3）、Howarewordsclassifiedinthecoursebook?Wordscanbeclassifiedbydifferentcriteriaandfordifferentpurposes.Wordsmayfallinto:thebasicwordstockandnonbasicvocabularybyusefrequency;contentwordsandfunctionalwordsbyno

8、tion;nativewordsandborrowedwordsbyorigin;simplewords,compoundsandderivedwordsbymorphology.4）、Whatisthedifferencebetweendenizensandaliens?Denizensarewordsborrowedearlyinthepastandnowarewellassimilated（完整同化）intotheEnglishlanguage.Butaliensareborrowedwordswhichhaveretainedtheiroriginalpronunciationands

9、pelling.Thesewordsareimmediatelyrecognizableasforeigninorigin.Chapter2TheDevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabulary1、TheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyTheprehistoricIndo-Europeanparentlanguage,thoughttobeahighlyinflected（內(nèi)部波折語）language.GroupClassificationIncludingEasterSetBalto-SlavicPrussian、Lithuanina（立陶宛語）、Cz

10、ech（捷克語）(東支)Indo-IranianPersian、Bengali（孟加拉）、Hindi、RomanyWesternSetCelticScottish、Irish、Welsh（西支）HellenicGreekItalicFiveRomancelanguages:Portuguese、Spanish、French、Italian、RomanianGermanicFourNorthernEuropeanLanguages(Scandinavianlanguages):Norwegian（挪威語）、Icelandic（冰島語）、Danish、SwedishGerman、Dutch（荷蘭語

11、）、Flemish（佛蘭芒語）、English2、ThreePhasesoftheHistoricalDevelopmentThefirstpeopleswhoinhabitedthelandwereCelts.ThesecondlanguageknowninEnglishwasLatinoftheRomanLegions.1）、OldEnglish（450-1150）Inthe9thcenturyEnglandwasinvadedbyNorwegianandDanishVikings.2）、MiddleEnglish（1150-1500）TheFrenchinfluenceonEnglish

12、vocabularywasoneofthesignificantpointsoftheMiddleEnglishperiod.ThemostimportantfactoftheMiddleEnglishperiodwasthesteadyerosionoftheinflectionalsystemsofOldEnglish.3）、ModernEnglish（1500-present）IntheearlyperiodofModernEnglish,EuropesawanewupsurgeoflearningancientGreekandRomanclassics.Itisestimatedtha

13、taboutonefourthofmodernEnglishvocabularyhascomefromFrench.3、ForeignElementsintheEnglishVocabularyInearlierstagesofEnglish,Latin,Greek,FrenchandScandinavianwerethefourmajorcontributors.ThesimultaneousexistenceofFrench,LatinandEnglishlastedforacentury.4、ModesofVocabularyDevelopmentModernEnglishvocabul

14、arydevelopsthroughthreechannels:creation,semanticchange（舊詞新義）andborrowing.Creationisthemostimportantwayofvocabularyexpansion.5、簡答WhatarethecharacteristicsofOldEnglish?OldEnglishalsoknownastheAnglo-Saxon,hasavocabularyofabout50000to60000words,whicharealmostmonogeneousandentirelyGermanicwithonlya（綜合性語

15、言）.（ModernEnglishisananalyticlanguage）.Morphemesareabstractunits,whicharerealizedinspeechbydiscreteunitsknownasmorphs.Allomorphs（詞素變體）Anallomorphreferstoamemberofasetofmorphs,whichrepresentonemorpheme.AffixChapter3MorphologicalStructureofEnglishWords1、MorphemesTheminimalmeaningfulunitsinEnglisharekn

16、ownasmorphemes（詞素）.2、ClassifyingMorphemesNo.ClassificationNotes1FreemorphemeBoundmorphemeincludetwotypes:boundrootandaffix（粘著詞素）arechieflyfoundinderivedwords2DerivationalmorphemeconfinedtosuffixesfunctionasgrammaticalmarkersInflectionalmorpheme（波折詞素）3ContentmorphemeOnasemanticandsyntacticbasis,morph

17、emescanfall（實義詞素）intocontent/lexicalandgrammaticalmorphemes.Grammaticalmorpheme3、Morphs（形素）4、5、No.ClassificationNotes1InflectionalaffixesaccordingtothefunctionDerivationalaffixes2prefixinviewoftheirdistribution（地點）inthewordssuffixSuffixesembracebothderivationalsuffixesandinflectionalsuffixes.6、Aroot

18、isthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.7、簡答1）、Whatisthedifferencebetweenfreemorphemesandboundmorphemes?Freemorphemeswhichhavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentencesareindependentofothermorphemes,butboundmorphemeswhichcannotoccura

19、sseparate.Wordsareboundtoothermorphemestoformwordsortoperformaparticulargrammaticalfunction.2）、Whatisthedifferencebetweenderivationalmorphemesandinflectionalmorphemes?Derivationalmorphemesareusedtoderivenewwords,butinflectionalmorphemesareemployedusedtoindicatethesyntactic（句法）relationshipbetweenword

20、sandfunctionasgrammaticalmarkers.Chapter4WordFormatioThemostproductivewaysofcreatingnewwordsareaffixation,compounding,andconversion.1、AffixationAccordingtotheposition:ClassificationIncludingExampleNotesPrefixationNegativePrefixesundemocratic,Generallyspeaking,prefixesdo（表示否認）disloyalnotchangetheword

21、-classoftheReversative/PrivativeunlockbasebutmodifyitsmeaningPrefixes（表示逆反）SuffixaionaDeverbalNounSuffixdismissal,(NounSuffixes)（動詞變名詞）assistantaDenominalNounSuffixbooklet,（名詞變名詞）hostessThewordscreatedbyaddingwordformingorderivationalaffixestobasesarecalledderivatives.2、Compounding（復合法）Example:workf

22、are(work+welfare)Inadjective-plus-nouncompounds,theadjectiveelementcannottakeinflectionalsuffixes.Verbcompoundsarecreatedeitherthoughconversionorthroughback-formation.3、Conversion（轉類法）Theconversionthattakesplacebetweennounsandverbsisthemostproductive.Theconversionoftwosyllablenounsintoverbsinvolvesa

23、changeofstress.Nounsfullyconvertedfromadjectiveshaveallthecharacteristicsofnouns.4、Blending（拼綴法）Theoverwhelmingmajorityofblendsarenouns5、Back-formation（逆身法）Back-formationisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.6、簡答1）、Whatisthemaindifferencebetweenprefixesandsuffixes?Unlikeprefixeswhichprimar

24、ilyeffectasemanticmodificationofthebase,suffixeshaveonlyasmallsemanticrole,theirprimaryfunctionbeingtochangesthegrammaticalfunctionofabase,i.e.thechangeofthewordclasswithaslightmodificationofmeaning.2）、Whatarethethreemainfeaturesofcompounds?Thethreemainfeaturesofcompoundsarephonologicalfeatures,sema

25、nticfeaturesandgrammaticalfeatures.Thewordstressofacompoundusuallyoccursonthefirstelement.Eachcompoundshouldexpressasingleideajustasoneword.Acompoundtendstoplayasinglegrammaticalroleinasentence.3）、Whatisback-formation?Whatarethecharacteristicsofback-formation?Back-formationisthemethodofcreatingwords

26、byremovingthesupposedsuffixes.Wordscreatedthroughback-formationareverbs.Stylistically,back-formedwordsarelargelyinformalandsomeofthemhavenotsuccessfullygainedcurrency.4）、Whatisacronymy?Whatisthedifferencebetweeninitialismsandacrnyms?Acronymyistheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofco

27、mpositenamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorphrasesusedastechnicalterms.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledinitialismsoracronyms.Initialismsarepronouncedletterbyletter,butacronymsarepronouncedasnormalwords7、闡述題Pointouttheformationofthefollowingwords?No.ClassificationIncludingExample1Blendinghead+tailau

28、tocide(automobile+suicide)、broasted(broiled+roasted)、chunnel(channel+tunnel)head+headcomsat(communication+satellite)、telex(teleprinter+exchange)、Amerind(American+Indian)、sitcom(situation+comedy)head+wordmedicare(medical+care)、Eurasia(Europe+Asia)、autocamp(automobile+camp)word+tailBookmobile(book+aut

29、omobile)、workfare(work+welfare),tourmobile(tour+automobile)2ClippingFrontClippingquake(earthquake)、copter(helicopter)、chute(parachute),（截短法）phone(telephone)、scope(telescope)BackClippingmemo(memorandum)、gent(gentleman)、fan(fanatic)、disco(discotheque)FrontandBackflu(influenza)、fridge(refrigerator)Clip

30、pingPhraseClippingpub(publichouse)、zoo(zoologicalgarden)、pop(popularmusic)3AcronymyInitialismsVOA、BBC(BritishBroadcastingCorporation)、（首字母拼音法）（首字母縮略詞）UFO(unidentifiedflyingobject)、TB(tuberculosis)(DependingonAcronymsNATO(theNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization)、thepronunciation)AIDS(acquiredimmunedeficie

31、ncysyndrome)、CORE(CongressofRacialEquality)、TEFL(teachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage)、1、“Medicare”and“sitcom”areblends.“Medicare”isformedbycombiningtheheadof“medicalandtheword“care”,and“sitcom”isformedbycombiningtheheadof“situation”andthatof“comdey.2、”Memo”and“flu”areclippedwords.“Memo”isformedbyclipp

32、ingthelackof“memorandum”and“flu”isformedclippingthefrontandlackof“influenza”.3、”TB”and“NATO”arenewwordscreatedthroughacronymy.“TB”from“tuberculosis”isaninitialism,while“NATO”from“theNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization”isanacronym.Chapter5WordMeaningandComponentialAnalysis（成份剖析法）1、ReferenceWordsarebutsym

33、bols,manyofwhichhavemeaningonlywhentheyhaveacquiredreference.2、Concept（觀點）Meaningandconceptarecloselyconnectedbutnotidentical.Concept,whichisbeyondlanguage,istheresultofhumancognition,reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.3、SenseUnlikereference,sensedenotestherelationshipsinsidethelanguage.4、Mot

34、ivation（理據(jù)）Motivationreferstotheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.No.ClassificationExample1OnomatopoeicMotivationcrowbycocks、quackbyducks、trumpetbyelephants、（擬聲理據(jù)）buzzbybeesorflies、croakbyfrogs、squeakbymice、neighbyhorses、bleatbygoats、hissbysnakes、roarbylionsandtigers2MorphologicalMot

35、ivationhopeful、useless、careful（形態(tài)理據(jù)）3SemanticMotivationMouth(themouthofariver)（語音理據(jù)）4EtymologicalMotivationpen（詞源理據(jù)）5、TypesofMeaningNo.ClassificationNotes1GrammaticalMeaningLexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaningformthewordmeaning.Lexicalmeaningitselfembracestwocomponents:conceptualmeaningandLexicalMean

36、ingassociativemeaning.（詞匯意義）Functionalwords,thoughthavinglittlelexicalmeaning,possessstronggrammaticalmeaningwhereascontentwordshavebothmeanings,andtheirlexicalmeaningsareprominent.2ConceptualMeaningTherearefewwordswiththesameconceptualmeaningandthesamestylisticAssociativeMeaningmeaning.1）、Conceptua

37、lMeaningandAssociativeMeaningNo.ClassificationExampleNotes1ConnotativeMeaningmother、home1、Oppositetothedenotativemeaning,（內(nèi)涵意義）connotativemeaningreferstotheovertonesorassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaning.2、Connotativemeaningvariesconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienc

38、eoftheindividual.StylisticMeaning（文體意義）AffectiveMeaning（感情義義）Theychuckedastoneatthecops,andthendidabunkwiththeloot.Aftercastingastoneatthepolice,theyabscondedwiththemoney.Positive、Negative、1、WordsthathaveemotivevaluesmayfallintoBothappreciative（褒義的）twocategories:appreciativeorpejorative.orpejorative

39、（貶義的):2、Affectivemeaning,whichisunstable,differsfromtheconceptualmeaning.4CollocativeMeaningprettywomanand（搭配意義）handsomewoman6、簡答1）、Whatisreference?Whatarethecharacteristicsofreference?akindofabstraction,yetwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingdefinite.2）、Whatisconceptualmeaning?Whatarethechara

40、cteristicsofconceptualmeaning?Conceptualmeaningknownascognitive,denotative,ordesignativeisthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofwordmeaning.Beingconstantandrelativelystable,conceptualmeaningformsthebasisforcommunicationasThesamewordgenerallyhasthesameconceptualmeaningtoallthespeakersofthesa

41、mespeechcommunity.(language).3）、Whatisthedifferencebetweenconceptualmeaningandassociativemeaning?Conceptualmeaningknownascognitive,denotative,ordesignativeisthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofwordmeaning.ButAssociativemeaningisthesecondarymeaningsupplementedtotheconceptualmeaning.Itdiffe

42、rsfromtheconceptualmeaningbecauseitisopen-endedandindeterminate,liabletotheinfluenceofsuchfactorsasculture,experience,religion,geographicalregion,classbackground,education,etc.4）、Whatiscollocativemeaning?Whatarethecharacteristicsofcollocativemeaning?Collocativemeaningisthatpartofthewordmeaningsugges

43、tedbythewordswithwhichitco-occurs.Itisagainnoticeablethatcollocativemeaningoverlapswithconnotativeandaffectivemeaningbecauseinasensebothconnotativeandaffectivemeaningsarerevealedbyvirtueofcollocationsorcontextuality.husband&wife（relationaloppositesfair(amarket,borrowedfromLatin)&fair(prettyfromOldEn

44、glish)rock(shortenedfromrockandroll)&rock(alargemassofstone)small&tinyChapter6SenseRelations（語義關系）No.RelationsClassificationExampleNotes1Polysemy1、Theinterrelationofthevariousmeaningsofthesamewordcanbeapproachedfromtwo（多義關系）differentangles:diachronic（歷時）approachandsynchronic（共時）approach.2、Synchronic

45、ally,polysemyisviewasthecoexistenceofvariousmeaningsofthesamewordinahistoricalperiod.Radiation（輻射型）isasemanticprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecentreandthesecondarymeaningsproceedoutofitineverydirectionlikerays.2HomonymyPerfectHomonymsdate(akindoffruit)&1、Homophonesarewords（同音同形異義）（完整同音同形異義

46、）date(aboyorgirlfriend)identicalonlyinspellingbutHomophonesdear&deerdifferentintwootheraspects.（同音異義）2、Ofthethreetypesofhomonyms,homophonesBorrowingconstitutethelargestnumberandaremostcommonShorteningSynonymy（同義關系）4Antonymy（反義關系）5Hyponymy（上下義關系）RelativeSynonyms（相對同義詞）Complementariestrue&false（互補反義詞）

47、Contraries（相對反義詞）Converses（逆反反義詞）Superordinateterms（上義詞）Subordinateterms“tulip（”郁金香）（下義詞）Subordinateterms1、Synonymsmaydifferintherangeandintensityofmeaning2、Absolutesynonymsarewordswhichareidenticalinmeaninginallitsaspects.3、Relativesynonymsaresimilarornearlythesameindenotativemeaning（外延意義）4、Oftheva

48、rioussourcesofsynonyms,themostimportantisborrowing.5、Relativesynonyms,alsocalledbysomepeoplenear-synonyms,aresimilarornearlythesameindenotation.1、Antonymshavevariouspracticalusesandhavelongprovedhelpfulandvaluableindefiningthemeaningsofagivenword.關系反義詞）2、Antonymsareclassifiedonthebasisofsemanticoppo

49、sition.Therelationshipofinclusion&“rose”arethe（內(nèi)包）iscalledhyponymy.“flower”.Thefirstmeaningofawordiscalledprimarymeaning.LatermeaningsarecalledderivedmeaningsThemeaningofamorespecificwordisincludeinthatofanothermoregeneralword.簡答Whatisthedifferencebetweenradiationandconcatenation（連鎖型）?Unlikeradiatio

50、nwhereeachofthederivedmeaningsisdirectlyconnectedtotheprimarymeaning,concatenationdescribesaprocesswhereeachofthelatermeaningsisrelatedonlytotheprecedingonelikechains.Chapter7ChangesinWordMeaningThevocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinthesign-shapesandsig

51、ncontents.1、TypesofChangeNo.TypesClassificationExampleNotes1ExtensionofMeaning（詞義擴大）Ofallthetypesofchangeofmeaning,2NarrowingofMeaning（詞義減?。〆xtensionandnarrowingarebyfarthemostcommon.3ElevationofMeaning（詞義升格）1、“minister”whichoriginallymeant“servant”2、”fond”whichformerlymeant“foolish”4DegradationofMe

52、aning（詞義降格）“silly”whichoriginallymeant“happy”5TransferenceofMeaningAssociatedTransfer“l(fā)ip”in“thelipofawound”（詞義轉移）Synesthesia（通感）Synesthesiatakesplacebetweenwordsofsensation.2、CausesofChangeNo.FactorsReasonsExampleNotes1Extra-linguisticPsychological“copperhead”duseExtensionofmeaningisalsoFactorsReas

53、ontorefertothoseknownasgeneralization,is（非語言要素）northerninformersthenamegiventothewideningofmeaningwhichsomewordsundergo.Theassociatedtransferofmeaning,theeuphemisticuseofwordsandsoonareoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.2LinguisticFactors3、簡答1）、Whatissemantictransfer?Whatarethefourmaintypesoftransfer?So

54、mewordswhichwereusedtodesignate/indicateonethingbutlaterchangedtomeansomethingelsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemantictransfer.Thefourmaintypesoftransferaretheassociatedtransfer,thetransferbetweenabstractandconcretemeanings,thetransferbetweensubjectiveandobjectivemeaningsandthesynesthesim.2）、Whataret

55、hetwofactorscausingchangesinmeanings?Howaretheyclassified?Thetwomajorfactorsthatcausechangesinmeaningaretheextra-linguisticfactorsandthelinguisticfactors.Theextra-linguisticfactorsincludethehistoricreason,theclassreasonandthepsychologicalreason.Thelinguisticfactorsincludeshortening,borrowingandanalo

56、gy.（類比）.Chapter8MeaningandContext（語境）1、TypesofContextWithoutcontext,thereisnowaytodeterminethemeaningthatthespeakerintendstoconvey.Whenwetalkaboutcontext,weusuallythinkoflinguisticcontext,hardlyawareofthenon-linguisticcontext.No.ContextClassify1Extra-linguisticContext2LinguisticContextLexicalContext

57、GrammaticalContextIncludingNotesThemeaningofawordmaybeinfluencedbythestructureinwhichitoccurs.Thisisknownasgrammaticalcontext.2、TheRoleofContextAmbiguityoftenarisesduetopolysemy,homonymyandgrammaticalstructure.Whenawordwithmultiplemeaningsisemployedininadequatecontext,itcreatesambiguity.3、簡答1）、whati

58、sthedifferencebetweenlinguisticcontextandextra-linguisticcontext?Linguisticreferstothewords,clauses,sentencesinwhichawordappearsanditisknownaslinguisticcontextorco-textmayextendtoembraceaparagraph,awholechapterandeventheentirebook.Butextra-linguisticornon-linguisticcontextreferstotheparticipants,tim

59、e,place,andeventhewholeculturalbackground2）、Whatisthedifferencebetweenlexicalcontextandgrammaticalcontext?Lexicalcontextreferstothewordsthatco-occurwiththewordinquestion.Themeaningofthewordisoftenaffectedanddefinedbytheneighbouringwords.Butgrammaticalcontextreferstothestructurewhichmayinfluencetheme

60、aningofapolysemant.4、闡述題Readthesentencecarefully.Ifyoufindanythinginappropriate,explainthereasonsandthenimprovethesentence.Heisahardbusinessman.Johnrantheeggandspoonrace.1、Thesentenceisambiguous.Theambiguityiscausedbypolysemy.2、Theword“hard”inthissentencecanbeunderstoodas“hardworking”or“difficult”.T