1、4.3 濕地WetlandsOutlineDefinition Types of wetlandsFunctions and valuesActivities affecting wetlandsConservation and management4.3.1 DefinitionWetland 通常指開闊水域 (open-water habitats) 以及季節性或永久性淹水的(waterlogged)陸地; 由于土地使用上的沖突(conflicting)，濕地范圍的界定是有爭議的(controversial)。濕地包括從永久淹水的區域到生長季節某些時期階段性水飽和并生長有水生植物 (hyd

2、rophytic)的地區。International DefinitionIUCN, 1971IUCN- International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural ResourcesAreas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt including areas o

3、f marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters, a wide variety of habitat types including rivers, coastal areas, and even coral reefs.濕地公約中的定義不論其為天然或人工、長久或暫時性的沼澤地，泥炭地或水域地帶，靜止或流動的淡水、半咸水、咸水水體，包括低潮時水深不超過6 m的水域；同時還包括鄰接濕地的河湖沿岸、沿海區域以及位于濕地范圍內的島嶼或低潮時水深不超過6 m的海水水體按此定義，濕地包括湖泊、河流、沼澤(森林

4、沼澤和草本沼澤)、灘地(河灘、湖灘和沿海灘涂)、鹽湖、鹽沼以及海岸帶區域的珊瑚礁、海草區、紅樹林和河口等類型Scientific Definition-U.S Fish and Wildlife ServiceWetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands must have one or

5、more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes (水生植物), (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil(水漬土), and (3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growi

6、ng season of each year.Legal DefinitionU.S Army Corps of EngineersThe term “wetlands”means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically ad

7、apted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.4.3.2 有關濕地的術語和濕地類型Wetland Terms and Types4.3.2.1 Terms Used to Describe WetlandsAquatic Bed: Areas of shallow permanent water that are dominated by plants that grow on or below the surfac

8、e of the water.Bog: A peat(泥炭)-accumulating wetland that has no significant inflow or outflow of ground or surface water and because of its acidic nature, supports acidophilic vegetation, particularly Sphagnum mosses(泥炭蘚).Bottomland: Lowlands (usually forested) along streams and rivers that are peri

9、odically flooded.Estuary: A marsh system associated with the drowned mouth of a large river.Fen: A peat-accumulating wetland that receives some inputs of ground water or drainage from surrounding mineral soils which typically results in alkaline waters and usually supports grass-like vegetation.Mars

10、h: A frequently or continually inundated wetland characterized by grass-like and other emergent vegetation adapted to saturated soil conditions. In European terminology a marsh has a mineral soil substrate and does not accumulate peat.Mire: Synonymous with any peat-accumulating wetland (European def

11、inition)Moor: Synonymous with peatland (European definition) Muskeg(泥炭沼澤、厚苔澤): Large expanses of peatlands; particularly used in Canada and AlaskaPeatland(泥炭地): A generic term for any wetland that accumulates partially decayed plant matter.Playa: Term used in southwestern United States for marshlike

12、 ponds similar to potholes but with a different geologic origin.Poor Fen: A peat-accumulating wetland that is transitional between a true bog and a true fen.Pothole(壺穴): A shallow, marshlike pond, particularly as found in the Dakotas and central Canadian provinces.Reedswamp. Marsh dominated by Phrag

13、mites (common reed); term used particularly in eastern Europe. Slough(泥沼): A swamp or shallow lake system in the northern and midwestern United States. A slowly flowing shallow swamp or marsh in southeastern U.S.Swamp: A wetland dominated by trees or shrubs (U.S. definition). In Europe a forested fe

14、n or reedgrass-dominated wetland is often called a swamp, for example, reedswamp.Vernal Pool (間隙塘): An ephemeral wetland usually in a forested area.Wet Meadow (草甸): Grassland with waterlogged soil near the surface but without standing water for most of the year.Wet Prairie (草原): Similar to a marsh b

15、ut water levels usually intermediate between a marsh and a wet meadow4.3.2.2 濕地類型1、海洋和海岸濕地Costal wetland 2、內陸濕地Inland Wetland 3、人工濕地Artificial Wetland 海洋和海岸濕地A、淺海水域B、海床C、珊瑚礁D、巖石性海岸E、沙或鵝卵石（含沙丘）海岸F、河口水域G、潮間帶灘涂H、海岸咸水沼澤（不含潮間帶）I、紅樹林/潮間帶森林J、海岸咸水湖（含瀉湖）K、海岸淡水湖L、三角洲內陸濕地M、河流/溪流/小河：長期性N、河流/溪流/小河：間歇性O、淡水湖：長期性P、

16、淡水湖：季節性或間歇性Q、咸水湖和沼澤：長期性R、咸水湖和沼澤：季節性或間歇性S、淡水沼澤/池塘：長期性T、淡水沼澤/池塘：季節性或間歇性U、泥炭蘚沼澤V、苔原/高山濕地W、灌木為主的濕地X、樹木為主的濕地（含沼澤林）Y、淡水泉（含綠洲）Z、地熱濕地人工濕地a、魚/蝦類池塘b、農場池塘/儲水池c、稻田類灌溉地d、季節性泛洪農業用地e、鹽田/鹽堿灘f、水庫 g、運河h、污水處理場 i、取土場/燒磚場/石場濕地生態環境類型典型漁業功能1、海洋和海岸濕地A、淺海水域網箱、筏式養殖，近岸漁業B、海床底棲類水產生物棲息地C、珊瑚礁典型熱帶生態類型D、巖石性海岸養殖，附著類水產生物棲息地F、河口水域河口漁

17、業生態類型G、潮間帶灘涂貝類養殖H、海岸咸水沼澤（不含潮間帶）貝類養殖I、紅樹林/潮間帶森林典型潮間帶生態類型J、海岸咸水湖（含泄湖）水產養殖K、海岸淡水湖水產養殖L、三角洲水產養殖，產卵場，幼魚索餌2、內陸濕地M、河流/溪流/小河捕撈、養殖，各類漁業生態系統O、淡水湖同上Q、咸水湖和沼澤同上S、淡水沼澤/池塘：長期性水產養殖3、人工濕地a、魚/蝦類池塘水產養殖c、稻田類灌溉地稻田養魚e、鹽田/鹽堿灘水產養殖f、水庫捕撈、水產養殖，漁業生態系統我國濕地類型根據我國濕地資源現狀以及濕地公約對濕地的分類系統，分為以下5類沼澤濕地湖泊濕地河流濕地濱海濕地人工濕地沼澤濕地我國現有沼澤濕地1370.03

18、萬hm2，共分為8個類型蘚類沼澤草本沼澤沼澤化草甸灌叢沼澤森林沼澤內陸鹽沼地熱濕地淡水泉或綠洲濕地湖泊濕地我國現有湖泊濕地835.15萬hm2，分為4類永久性淡水湖季節性淡水湖永久性咸水湖季節性咸水湖河流濕地我國現有河流濕地820.70萬hm2，分為3類永久性河流季節性河流洪泛平原濕地濱海濕地我國現有濱海濕地594.17萬hm2，分為12型淺海水域潮下水生層珊蝴礁巖石性海岸潮間沙石海灘潮間淤泥海灘潮間鹽水沼澤紅樹林沼澤海岸性咸水湖海岸性淡水湖河口水域三角洲濕地人工濕地我國人工濕地資源比較豐富，其中庫塘(水庫和大型池塘)228.5hm2，共分為10型水產池塘水塘灌溉地農用泛洪濕地鹽田蓄水區采掘區

19、廢水處理場所運河、排水渠地下輸水系統Swamps (林沼) Swamps 森林沼澤，常以其上生長的樹木種類來劃分Conifer (針葉樹)Swamps: 白杉white cedar,西方金鐘柏northern white cedar,加拿大鐵杉eastern hemlock,北美白松eastern white pine,北美脂松pitch pine,厚皮刺果松, 火炬松loblolly pine, 黑云杉black spruce Hardwood (闊葉樹)Swamps:紅槭red maple, 黑柳black willow, 白楊aspen, 棉白楊cottonwood, 白蠟樹ashes,

20、榆樹elms,二色櫟swamp white oak, 橡樹pin oak, 紫樹tupelo, 和樺樹birches Shrub (灌木) Swamps: 灌木如美國梧桐buttonwood, 柳willow,榿木alders，山茱萸dogwoodCypress (柏樹) Swamps: 落羽松,美國水松bald cypressA freshwater swamp in northeast Texas. Freshwater swamps are inland areas permanently saturated or covered by water and dominated by tr

21、ees, such as bald cypress. The water surface is covered by a floating carpet of tiny aquatic plants.Marshes (草沼)Marsh 是一大類以草本植物為優勢的沼澤地，典型的沼澤植物包括燈心草rushes, 蘆葦reeds, 莎草sedges,香蒲cattails, and grasses周期性被靜水或緩流水覆蓋的地方，通常與ponds, rivers, streams, inland lakes等相聯偶有沙質土 sandy soils, 但通常是富含有機質、營養豐富的細土有很多濕地類型以草樣

22、植物為主，被劃入marsh 類型中A tidal creek at high tide on the high marsh高位鹽沼. Tall Spartina grows along the banksGlasswort (厚岸草) dominates highly saline areas on the salt marsh. The plant, which turns red in fall, is a major food of over-wintering geese.The Horicon marsh in Wisconsin is an outstanding example

23、of a northern marsh with well developed emergent vegetation and patches of open water- an ideal environment for wildlife.The distinctive cowlick sweep of salt meadow cordgrass 網茅nest to a stand of saltgrass. Bayberry(野梅屬) in the background marks the shrub zoneBogs (酸性泥炭沼)Bogs 泥炭濕地mossy wetlands水幾乎全部

24、源于雨、雪，幾乎不流動，含氧低，酸性很強，通常低溫由于低溫和低溶氧，有機質很難被真菌和細菌分解，因而形成泥炭(peat)泥炭蘚Sphagnum (peat moss 泥炭苔) 常見，一些耐酸的常綠樹木和灌木繁生，也生長有蘭花Orchids, 睡蓮water lilies, 狗魚草pickerel weed, 酸果蔓(蔓越橘) cranberries,越橘 blueberries食蟲植物Insect-eating plants 如瓶子草 pitcher plants、茅膏菜 sundew也常在泥炭沼出現常見動物有Turtles, frogs, insects, 和食蟲鳥類，魚類少見低溶氧之故Bo

25、g 典型的沼生植物PeatlandPeatlandSome plants in the bogFens (弱酸性或堿性泥炭沼)Fens: 另一類類似泥炭沼的濕地與泥炭沼的相似之處：冰川退縮時形成；有泥炭積累與泥炭沼的不同之處：有一些來水由溪流和地下水補給，水交換率較大，酸性較弱，因而水和土壤營養較豐富禾草和莎草是常見植物，看上去象草甸 meadows通常出現于bogs附近，且多數最終發育成為bogs常見動物有昆蟲如蚊子mosquitos、馬蠅horseflies，兩棲動物，食蟲鳥類，哺乳動物如鼩鼱(shrews)、倉鼠(voles), 和麝鼠(muskrats).Wicken Fen Natu

26、re Reserve, CambridgeshireFenPrairie Potholes(草原壺穴)最后一次冰川期結束時，退縮的冰川在地面上留下數以百萬計形態和大小各異的凹洼。雨雪使之積水。因多數位于草原且象圓形的壺，故名隨大小和雨水的數量，有些是暫時的，有些是永久的壺穴周圍生長的紙草(Bulrushes)、莎草(sedges)、香蒲(cattails ) 等，為鳥類和其他動物提供了大量的營巢地和隱匿地涵養水分、吸收對河流有害的沉積物和營養鹽有時也稱為Slough(泥沼)Potholes dot the glacial landscape of the north central U. S.

27、 A.為流域所產生的洪水和沉積物提供臨時儲存地作為許多河濱植物群落生長及所支持的野生動物的主要生境河流脈動概念The flood-pulse concept 用以歸納水-陸動態交互作用如何為河流和河漫灘生物區系riverine and floodplain biota所利用exploited河邊濕地Riparian wetlandsA riparian forest in AlabamaFloodplain Schematic of the flood-pulse concept垂直方向放大了的河漫灘斷面，示一年水文周期中的5個瞬間，左邊描述了營養物質的流動，右邊是魚類典型生活史特征typic

28、al life history traits of fish. 枯水期，水位開始上漲大多數河流繁殖魚類開始產卵漲水期，產卵，幼魚及其捕食者向岸活動，魚類和昆蟲的生產力高高水位，幼魚和成魚分散攝食底部可能溶氧不足水位開始消退多數魚類向深水區洄游枯水期魚類進入主河道（干流或支流）及永久性湖泊4.4 河口EstuaryAn estuary is a coastal body of water, partly surrounded by land, with access to the open ocean and a large supply of fresh water from river河口區

29、的特殊性Estuaries are special environments at the mouths of rivers, especially where outflow partially enclosed (such as barrier islands).獨一無二的生境，淡水和咸水交接的界面典型的高生產力區域，營養鹽的輸入和底部沉積物與上層水之間迅速的營養交換其邊緣通常為大片的有挺水植物生長的潮間帶沼澤河口區低潮位和高潮位時垂直和水平的鹽度分層 ，示高潮位時涌入的海水使向河口方向鹽度升高，低潮位時鹽度降低，同時請注意鹽度隨深度而增加，因為輕的淡水流在密度大的咸水之上河口區淡水和咸水

30、的循環形成一個 營養陷井(nutrient trap). 在下部突入的海水鹽度楔形成一個表層較輕的淡水流和下方較重的咸水逆流。逆流捕捉營養并將之帶向潮間帶沼澤，逆流也將浮游植物送回河口，repopulating the water.河口是地球上最高產的生態系統之一，比相鄰的海洋和河流都高潮汐的作用，促使營養鹽迅速循環，并帶走代謝廢物河流從陸地攜帶營養輸送到河口水淺，陽光穿透強大量植物的存在，既提供了 an extensive photosynthetic carpet ，其根莖機械地“捕捉”碎屑 trap detritus，從而為碎屑食物鏈提供基礎紅樹林Mangrove forest一些重要經

31、濟魚類的繁殖場和肥育場固定沉積物防止海岸沖蝕風暴潮的屏障紅樹林 MangroveMangle (西班牙語，染料)+ Grove (英語，樹林)熱帶、亞熱帶潮間帶灘涂上生長的由木本植物組成的喬木和灌木林，統稱紅樹林紅樹植物：只能在潮水經常性淹沒的潮間帶生長和繁衍后代的植物， 并有氣生根、支柱根和海水傳播繁殖體等適合潮間帶生活的專一性適應形態特征半紅樹植物：陸生耐沿性木本植物，兩棲性，無專一性形態特征紅樹植物非分類學詞匯生態趨同適應全球70種東方類群，60種：非洲東岸、亞洲、東太平洋海岸、澳洲西方類群，12種：美洲東西海岸、非洲西海岸我國，12科15屬27種，8省區；主要紅樹科植物，丹寧，木材紅，

32、樹皮可提丹寧做染料（美洲印第安人土語的音譯，mangle）紅樹林的生態適應海水淡化器、葉表泌鹽、節水大部分，根系體液濃度很高，-水，拒鹽少數e.g.桐花樹、白骨壤，葉表分泌排鹽生理干旱，葉片-革質肉質氣孔下陷光亮絨毛等根系支柱根，e.g.紅海欖呼吸根：指狀e.g.白骨壤，筍狀e.g.海桑膝狀根：木欖、海蓮板狀根：秋茄、銀葉樹氣生根：紅海欖、白骨壤表面根：桐花樹、海漆紅海欖的支柱根 廣西，樹高46m，支柱根高12.5m Costa Rica，合式紅樹，支柱根高達4m白骨壤的指狀呼吸根，1025cm海桑的呼吸根，可長高加粗，一般11.5m，記錄3m木欖的膝狀根，1530cm秋茄的板狀根銀葉樹的板狀

33、根可高達1.7m紅海欖的氣生根海漆的表面根紅樹林的生長適應性胎生苗vivpary顯胎生，紅樹科植物，幼苗突破果皮胚軸苗，1560cm隱胎生cryptovivipary，桐花樹、白骨壤，非紅樹科防腐防食丹寧（樹皮，830%）苦澀，防啃食，枝葉、果和胎生苗廣譜抗菌，抗病力絡合、螯合，解毒esp.苗漂流過程中抗海水腐蝕1. 木欖2. 紅茄苳3. 木欖屬一種4. 白骨壤a新萌發b.胚芽生長5. 桐花樹a. 果實b. 單個幼果c.發芽果實木欖的顯胎生苗紅樹的顯胎生苗大紅樹的顯胎苗白骨壤的隱胎生果實紅樹林的直接利用木材耐腐蝕能源（薪材、木炭）-水浸泡綠色食品（白骨壤等果實）-去除丹寧青飼料碘、鹽，助消化促

34、生長、葉片營養價值高于苜蓿海洋藥物eg老鼠勒：消腫解毒止痛，治療淋巴結腫大、肝脾腫痛、乙型肝炎、男性不育癥、神經痛、勞損等蜜源植物染料綠肥紅樹林的生態功能生物多樣性與碎屑食物鏈動物食品源近海漁業的能源林間養殖場環境凈化造陸和海岸減災觀光旅游急劇消失中的紅樹林國家原有面積(ha)/ 年代現有面積(ha)/年代減少%印度尼西亞180萬/197590萬/199450其中Sulawesi11萬/19653萬/199473菲律賓40萬/192014萬/199465越南40萬/195025萬/198337.5中國4.8萬/1950初1.5萬/1990初70其中：廣東2.1萬/1950初3813/1990初

35、82Red mangroves (Phizophora mangle). The stiltlike roots that support the tree grow deeper water as well as into the mudflat exposed by low tide. Many animals live in the complex root system of mangrove forests. This photo was taken along the coast of Florida, near Miami珊瑚礁Coral Reefs珊瑚礁是特殊的海洋生態系統：淺

36、水溫暖水域可能在下沉或侵蝕的火山上發育，形成環狀的atoll (環礁)高生產力：大量營養源于陸地側的侵蝕或/和富含營養的深水流遇到礁石后上涌生物多樣性高，大堡礁(Great Barrier Reefs)，魚類1500余種。Coral reef at Manado, IndonisiaCoral reefKelp forest of Macrocystis pyrifera off the coast of California4.3.3 濕地的功能和價值 Function and value功能 Function魚類和野生動物棲息地受脅和瀕危動物棲息地水質凈化沉積物控制波浪和侵蝕的屏障涵養水源

37、洪水存儲與運輸Fish and Wildlife Habitat (vital habitat, natures nurseries, migration stations) Threatened and Endangered Species HabitatWater Pollution Control (water clearer)Sediment Control (silt catcher)Barrier to Waves and Erosion (erosion control)Water Supply (water supplier)Flood Storage and Conveyan

38、ce (flood control)A lagoon formed behind coastal sand dunes in Australia. A black swan sits on the its nest among the reeds in the center of the pictureMassed flamingos at Lake Nakuru, Kenya, with the Rife Valley wall in the backgroundAn American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) basking at the

39、 edge of a shallow freshwater lake in the Florida Everglade價值Values娛樂和美學價值 Recreation and Aesthetic Values狩獵、漁業 Hunting, fishing, trapping水質凈化 Water Quality Maintenance供水 Water Supply食品和纖維 Food and Fiber Production防洪 Flood Protection水土保持 Sedimentation and Erosion Control歷史和考古 Historic and Archeologi

40、cal Values文化、哲學和精神價值 Cultural, Philosophical, and Psychological Values洪泛平原淡水沼澤泥炭地沼澤森林Functions 地下水+ + +地下水排放+ + +防洪+ + + +水土流失控制+ +-沉積物和有毒物滯留+ + + + +營養物滯留+ + + + +生物量+ +-+風暴防護-+娛樂/旅游+各種類型的濕地對人類社會的價值各種類型的濕地對人類社會的價值續洪泛平原淡水沼澤泥炭地沼澤森林Products木材+-+ +野生動物+ + + + +漁業+ + +-+放牧+ + +-農業+ +-供水+Attributes生物多樣性+

41、 +文化 +4.3.4 影響濕地的人類活動一些人類活動可影響濕地的功能灌水 Flooding排水 Draining土地使用改變 Land Use Changes 挖泥 Dredging填埋 Filling砍伐 Vegetation Cutting外來種入侵 Exotic Species Invasion使用有害化學物 Using Harmful Chemicals旅游的過度開發 Recreational Overuse洪泛平原淡水沼澤泥炭地林沼排水 (農業、林業、滅蚊等)+ + + + +挖泥和河流渠化+ +-填埋 (垃圾填埋和工業發展)+ + +-農業用地+-筑壩（防洪、灌溉）+ + +-污

42、染物和沉積物傾倒+ + +-采掘（泥炭、煤、石礫等）+-+ + +地下水抽提+ +-Threats to the maintenance of particular groups of functioning wetlands. freshwater marshes for this purpose are extensive wetlands often associated with lakes, peatlands include large areas of muskeg, blanket bog and wet tundra and swamp forest include boreal forest wetland (From Dugan 1994)Some direct and indirect threats to wetlandsDirect threatsIndirect