1、Argument時序性因果攻擊Firstly,theauthorisengagedinafterthis,therefore,becauseofthisreasoning.ThelineofreasoningisthatbecauseAhappenedbeforeB,theformercausedthelatter.However,thisreasoningisfallaciousunlessotherpossiblecausalfactorshavebeenconsideredandruledout.Forexample,perhapsC.Asaresult,anydecisionaimed

2、ataddressingtheproblemofBmustbebasedonamorethoroughinvestigationtogatherdatainordertonarrowdownandlocatetheactualcauseofB.同時性因果攻擊Secondly,theauthorssolutionrestsontheassumptionthatAisthecauseofBjustbecauseAcoincidedwithB.However,amerepositionalcorrelationdoesnotnecessarilyproveacausalrelationship.In

3、addition,allotherprospectivecausesofB,suchasCandD,mustberuledout.WithoutdetailedanalysisoftherealsourceofB,itwouldbegroundlesstoattributeBtoA.錯誤類比攻擊Additionally,itishighlydoubtfulthatstrategiesdrawnfromAareapplicabletoB.However,differencesbetweenthesetwoclearlyoutweighthesimilarities,thereforemaking

4、theanalogymuchlessvalid.Forexample,CandDallaffectAbutvirtuallyabsentinB.Accordingly,wecanseethatAandBaresodissimilarthatBisunlikelytoexperiencethesameconsequenceifitadoptsAsstrategies.4.止匕即彼攻擊Lastbutnotleast,theauthorunfairlyassumesthatareadermustmakeaeither-orchoice.However,theargumentfailstoruleou

5、tpossibilitythatadjustingAandBmightproducebetterresults.Moreover,iftheauthoriswrongintheassumptionthatAandBaretheonlycausesoftheproblem,thusthemosteffectivesolutionmightincludeacomplexofotherfactorssuchasCandD.Inanyevent,theauthorprovidesnojustificationforthemutuallyexclusivechoiceimposedonthereader

6、.必要性攻擊Inthefirstplace,theauthorunfairlyassumesthatBwasdeterminedsolelybyA.WhileAisaseeminglyimportantelementindeterminingB,itishardlytheonlyorevennecessarilyrequiredelement.ThisassumptionoverlooksothercrucialcriteriaindeterminingBsuchasC,D.Withoutaccountingforthesepotentialfactors,theauthorconcludes

7、toohastilythatisthebestwaytoachievegoals.充分性攻擊Inthesecondplace,_theauthorssolutionrestsontheassumptionthatAissufficienttogivebirthtothedesiredgoals.However,ifitturnsoutthatBisduetoacombinationoffactors,someofwhichwillremainunchangedinthefuture,suchasCandD,onlyAmighthavenoimpactonB.選擇性樣本攻擊Athresholdp

8、roblemisthattheauthorprovidesnoevidencetoclaimthatthegeneralgroupasawholeisofthesamecharacteristic.Theexamplecited,whilesuggestiveofthistrend,isinsufficienttowarrantthatthesampleisrepresentativeofthewholegroup.Forexample,Iquestionthat-Therefore,suchevidencewouldbeobviouslyunrepresentative.Infact,inf

9、aceofsuchlimitedevidence,itisfallaciousfortheauthortodrawanyconclusionatall.（與選擇性樣本攻擊”較類似）樣本代表性攻擊Moreover,apossiblemethodologyproblemintheargumentisthatitisofbias.Thetermsomanyistoovaguetobestatisticallymeaningful.Itisverypossiblethatworkerswhoweremoreinterestedinthesurveymightbelikelytorespondtothe

10、questionnaire.Lackingintheinformationaboutthenumberofworkerssurveyedandthenumberofrespondents,itisimpossibletoassessthevalidityofthesurvey.Forinstance,if1000workersweresurveyedbutonly10responded,theresultshouldbehighlysuspect.Becausetheauthorfailstoaccountforotherinterpretations,thesurveywouldbeusel

11、essinconcludingthat.其他理由忽略他因攻擊Thirdly,theauthorhasfocusedonlyonA.Amoredetailedanalysiswouldrevealthatotherfactorsfaroutweighthefactoronwhichtheauthorfocuses.Forexample,C.Lackingamorecomprehensiveanalysisofthecauses,itispresumptuousfortheauthortoclaimthatAsolelydeterminedB.因果倒置攻擊Atlast,itispossibleth

12、attheauthorhasconfusedcausewitheffect.PerhapsAwasaresponsetoB.Sincetheauthorfailstoaccountforthispossibility,theclaimthatiscompletelyunwarranted樣本數量攻擊Anotherproblemthatseriouslyweakensthelogicofthisargumentisthatthesurveycitedisbasedontoosmallasampletobereliable.Offeredinsupportoftheargument,theonly

13、evidenceisthatUnlessitcanbeshownthatthesampleistypicalofallgeneralgroup,thefactthatisgroundlesstoclaimthatLoadedquestion和誠實性攻擊Whatsmore,themethodologyofthesurveyisproblematicfortworeasons.Foronething,wearenotinformedwhetherthesurveyprovidedonly3alternatives.Ifitdid,therespondents,whomightverywellpre

14、feranotherchoicenotprovidedinthesurvey,mightbeforcedtogiveuptheirpreferences.Foranotherthing,wearenotinformedwhetherthesurveyresponseswereanonymousorconfidential.Therespondentsmightsupplyresponsesfavoredbytheirsuperiorswhomightconductthesurvey.Botheventswouldleadthissurveyunreliable,letalonedrawthec

15、onclusionthat樣本時效性攻擊Lastbutnotleast,anotherflawthatsignificantlyunderminesthisargumentisthattheauthorneglectstoindicatehowrecentlythesurveywasactuallyconducted.Whenusedtogenerallyclaimaparticulargroup,thesamplesshouldbecloseenoughtosupportthegeneralization,inordertopreventhistoricalchangesfrominvali

16、datingthegeneralization.Allweknowisthatthesurveyisrecentlypublished.Thelessrecentthesurveyitself,thelessreliabletheresultstodemonstratethat差異概念攻擊Tobeginwith,wemustestablishthemeaningofthevagueconceptA.IfthetermweresynonymouswithB,theevidencecitedwouldstronglysupporttheargument.However,Amaybedefinedi

17、nothertermssuchasCandD.Accordingly,theauthorhasdrawntheconclusiontoohastilyduetotheignoranceofotherdefinitionsofA.范圍內推攻擊Whatsmore,themostegregiousreasoningerrorinthisargumentisthattheauthorusesevidencepertainingtoageneralgrouponthebasisofaparticularB.Evenifthereasoningmaybesoundingeneralsense,thepar

18、ticularsituationinwhichBisinvolvedmaynotberepresentativeoftheentiregeneralgroup.Itispossiblethat.Ifthisisthecase,theclaimthatisillfounded.不隨時變攻擊Moreover,theauthorunfairlyassumesthatAwillremainunchangedoverthenextdecades.However,amererecentone-yearAisinsufficienttoclaimthat.Statisticsfromsuchlimiteda

19、necdotalevidenceisnotagoodindicatorforthistrend.Inaddition,itispossiblethatinthefuture,thistrendwouldgreatlyfluctuateorevenreverse,thentheadoptionoftheauthorsproposalmightgivebirthtoB,however,itmightalsohaveanegativeimpactonC1and,inturns,C2.Admittedly,thisargumentwouldbeevenweakerandweakereachdayast

20、imegoesby.Issue把題目復述一下?Tosomeextent,Iagreewiththeauthorsgeneralassertionthatif*（即在作者的觀點上，加上一些條件，有保留地贊同）.However,theauthorunnecessarilyextendsthisbroadassertiontoanirreversibleextremewhileoverlooksothercompellingfactorsthatmayaffectthisissue.Onbalance,mypointsofagreementandcontentionwiththeauthorinvo

21、lvethefundamentalanddeepanalysisasdiscussedbelow.Ontheonehand,Iwouldliketoadmitthatthisstatement,althoughsuffersfromsomeobviousdrawbacks,hassomemeritsprimarilyinsomespecialcasesinwhichtheimplicitrationalebehinditaccordswithcommonsenseandourexperienceindailylife.Hence,itispartiallyindisputable.Aftera

22、ll,.Evenif,Inotherwords.Furthermore,.Alltheseevidencedemonstratesbeyondanydoubtthat.（以上兩段要找兩個理由，來說明作者觀點如何對）Ontheotherhand,recognizingthatamoreapplicablechoicemustincorporatedifferentaspectsoftheissueassufficientaspossible,Ihavetopointoutthattheauthoroverstatesscomparativesignificance,andfailtotakein

23、toaccountotheressentialfactors.Inshort,thisassertionisproblematicintwoaspects.ThefirstargumenttheonethatIthinkthemostcompellingisthattheauthoroverlooked,thatistosay,.Thesecondargumentitmighthavebeennoticedbyothers-isthatinsomeoccasion,itisquitedifficultto.Accordingly,Itendtoconcedethatwhenitcomestos

24、omecertaincircumstancesitispartiallyappropriate（這里找兩個理由說明在一些場合下，作者觀點還是不成立的，因為不管什么論點，成立還是會有條件的。此段模版字數已經很多，你只要列出不成立的觀點即可，言簡意賅,因為一般到這個時候，時間也不多了，容不得你寫例子了。）Inconclusion,issueofisacomplexone,requiringsubjectivejudgment,consequently,therearenoeasyorcertainanswers.Sodifferentarethepersonalexperiencesandemot

25、ionalconcernsamongpeoplewithdiverseculturethatthousandindividualsmightholdthousandopinions.Accordingtome,把你開頭的觀點copy/paste上去.GMATReading1.4種文章類型一、新老觀點對比（重點在后）先是老觀點:many,most,common,frequently,usually,traditionally,once,old,recently,untilrecently再是新觀點：強轉折（1段中/2段首）主題句：明確的新觀點。二、現象解釋型（重點在后）-為什么？先是現象：自然科

26、學：自然現象社會科學：史實再是解釋：解釋原因+提出多個理論+強調主體+評價主題句：正確的解釋三、問題解決型：（重點在后）-該怎么去做？問題：疑問question,puzzle任務difficulty,task,problem,challenge解決/回答：多個理論+提出主題+作者評價。主題句：正確的解決方案/答案四、結論解釋型（開門見山）-有哪些內容特點：判斷句-主題句恰恰是判斷句；解釋：內容的詳細展開2.主題題型一、對文章的中心思想、寫作目的等提問的題目1 .明確主題句TS2 .無TS-關鍵詞、細節、新內容A.關鍵詞：主體動詞Presentation：present,describe,exp

27、lain,illustrate,pointout,etc.Argumentation:evaluate,criticize,refute,challenge,counter,correct,etc.（非常實用）3 .含作者態度（少數服從多數）二、結構套路1. organization:既問文章/段落的結構、套路，注意順序！2. 特別套路：專門評述某人理論、著作，多屬于結構解釋型，少屬于現象解釋（為什么）。3. 注意：A. 先入為主型（從前不從后）：前面部分結構已經很完整，但后面部分說了一大段和前面無關的離題內容，不能受后面影響B. 少數服從多數（從大不從小）：TS提出正態度，卻在末尾作出轉折說

28、一些缺點、毛病，只是為了避免極端而作出的暖和語氣。3. 態度題就作者對某事件、某理論的態度評價提問的題目。一邊倒評價：正評價、負評價混合評價：大正小負、大負小正文中判斷評價的依據：判斷句系動詞、情態動詞、自由褒貶詞（adj，adv）1 、引號：負評價2、表示評價的實義動詞：主要用于研究類文章（1）負評價：fail（to）,ignore,overlook,neglect,忽略，忽視，前一個為主觀，后兩個為客觀overestimate,underestimate,高估，低估exaggerate,夸張，夸大misrepresent,misinterpret錯誤表達，錯誤表述，錯誤解釋（2）正評價：s

29、how,prove,demonstrate證明find,discover,發現determine,confirm，確信，確認3、讓步語氣讓步語氣的三種寫法：前半句（1）itistrue/itiscorrect/ofcourse（2）nodoubt/withoutdoubt/undoubtedly（3）do/may/seem/appear后半句：強轉折以后半句為主要評價。4、從大不從小文章開頭或主題句中的評價是大評價，其他是小評價。讓步和轉折除外。4. 細節題一、四種主要類型1. 羅馬數字題2.inorderto題型3.強對比取非題4.其他二、幾種常見的錯誤方式三、細節定位（1）有定位的信息題：

30、of,about,concerning,regarding-關于同義變換（2）無定位的信息題：只能根據對全文的整體把握來逐個判斷選項。5. 類比題典型問法：whichofthefollowingismostsimilartothesituationinthesentence?Similarto,analogousto,parallel做法：抓住本質特征客觀題做題要求：題型、定位、同義變換做題注意事項1、 4種錯誤選項：混、偏、反、無混：張冠李戴：A說成B；偏：以偏蓋全；反：與原文相反；無：原文沒說/無法判斷2、 慎重對待含有最高級、唯一性和比較句的選項3、 不要用非出題段落的內容來解答這個題例

31、外：問某段結尾，可用下段開頭；問某段開頭，可用上段結尾。4、 長選項豎讀法縱向比較所有選項，尤其是開頭，找到其中相同的語言部分，如果某幾個選項中相同的語言部分對這個題有用，那么先看這幾個選項或者這幾個選項的差異部分。5、文字定位基本操作：讀文章的時候找出主題詞和評價；文：主題題干：主題特殊情況：（1）如果題干主題在文中多處出現，一般定位在其首次出現之處。（2）如果題干主題與文章主題有關，定位在主題句。6. 邏輯題：（反對+支持題）（1）反對題：weaken,undermine,callintoquestion,castdoubton4種作法：A、反對原因B、反證法C、直接反對結論D、存在其他原因反對A-B時可說A不成立。假設結論成立，推出矛盾、謬誤，與現實不符的情況。欲反對A-B，直接說B不成立。欲反對A-B，可說C-B。2）支持題：support,strengthen3種作法：A、補充所缺的條件。欲支持A-B,補上C,得C-A-B。B、把B再強調一遍。C、具體事例法：舉文中沒有講過的例子作為正面論據。（3）IFTRUE原則：不要懷疑5個選項的成立性，一切以他們的成立為前提。7. 出題點一、總結1. 主題：幾乎必考；2.混合評價；3.強對