健康與疾病

1.艾滋

加強警醒和教育enhancingAIDSawarenessandeducation

艾滋的蔓延anADISepidemic

2.人類基因組計劃humangenomeresearch

3.thebioethics（生物倫理學）ofgenetherapies（基因治療）、euthanasia（安樂死）

4.衛生保健（provide）healthcare

5.疾病的影響更小theincidenceof...diseaseislowerthan...

6.預防疾病preventthedisease

教育

1.州比聯邦更具自主權

Individualstates—ratherthanthefederalgovernment—haveprimaryauthorityoverpubliceducation

intheUnitedStates.

In1794NewYorkbecamethefirststatetoestablishaboardofregentstooverseepubliceducation.

Eventually,everystatedevelopedadepartmentofeducationandenactedlawsregulatingfinance,

thehiringofschoolpersonnel,studentattendance,andoftencurriculum.Untilthe20thcenturythe

degreeofregulationvariedenormouslyfromstatetostate.

費用地方資助

Publicschoolshavealsoreliedheavilyonlocalpropertytaxestomeetthevastmajorityofschool

expenses.

Incontrast,countrieslikeFrance,Germany,andJapanhaveschoolsystemsthatarefinancedand

regulatedonthenationallevel.

2.CentralizingTendencies

AsgreaternumbersofAmericansenrolledinschoolsduringthe20thcentury,educationbecamea

powerfulsocialandeconomicforce.這句改一改可以放在教育類文章的開頭當作背景。

Effortstoincreasethesizeandefficiencyofpublicschoolsledtothecreationofmorecentralized

schoolsystems.Tobringorderandefficiencytoschoolsystems,Americaneducatorshadalready

developedstandardizedmechanismsofschoolorganizationbytheendofthe19thcentury.For

example,classplacementwasdeterminedbyastudent'sage,eachclassperiodwasaspecified

length,andstudentsgraduatedafteraspecifiednumberofyearsinattendance.

3.教師的規范培養（師范學校、機構）Alsoby1900specializedteachertraininginstitutionscallednormal

schoolswerewellestablished,andmanyhadalreadybecomefour-yeardegree-grantingcolleges.

Institutionsthatprovidedtrainingforteachersdevelopedexpertisethatoftenledtostandardized

practices,rangingfromnotionsabouttheidealsizeofelementaryclassroomstotheidealformofa

lessonplan.

4.教育盈利（出版業）Aseducationbecameabiggerandmorelucrativeenterprise,mass-market

textbookpublishingcompaniesandtestingorganizationsmadesignificantprofitsbyproducing

materialsusedinschoolsthroughoutthecountry.

5.某法令使聯邦政府作用加大Theroleofthefederalgovernmentinsettingeducationpolicyincreased

significantlywiththepassagebyCongressoftheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001,asweeping

educationreformlawthatrevisedtheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965.

6.天才教育EducationofGiftedStudents,areainthefieldofspecialeducationconcernedwiththe

instructionofstudentswhohaveexceptionallyhighabilities.

7.天才JL童的定義TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEducationdescribes“giftedness"asexceptionally

advancedperformanceorthepotentialforoutstandingperformanceinintellectual,creative,

leadership,artistic,orspecificacademicfields.Childrenwhodemonstrateoutstandingtalentscome

fromallsocial,cultural,andeconomicgroups.

8.常用的天才例子莫扎特

Giftedperformanceinadultshasbeenrecognizedthroughoutrecordedhistory.Forexample,

biographiesofthe18th-centuryAustriancomposerWolfgangAmadeusMozartgenerallyemphasize

thathewasahighlyaccomplishedmusicianandcomposerasearlyasagesix.

9.特殊教育的必要性

Educatorsbelievethatgiftedstudentsrequirespecialeducationservicesbecausetheirlearning

needsdiffersignificantlyfromthoseofthegeneralpopulation.（下面是天才學生能??.）Theylearnmore

rapidlyandareabletounderstandmoreabstractandcomplexideas.Theyarealsoabletotransform

existingknowledgeintonewandusefulforms,andtocreatenewknowledgerecognizedforits

originality,complexity,andelegance.（特殊教育的作用）Specialeducationservicesandfacilitiesfor

giftedchildrenmayenhancetheseabilities.（他們要求。。。特殊服務心理咨詢）Inaddition,somegifted

learnersmayrequirespecialcounselingservicestoaddresssocialoremotionaladjustmentissues

thatarecomplicatedbytheirexceptionalabilities.

（具體方法）Somegiftedchildrengainearlyentrancestokindergarten,skipgrades,entercollege

earlierthanusual,ortakespecificcourseswitholderchildren.

10.美國學校提供天才教育

ManyregularelementaryandsecondaryschoolsintheUnitedStatesofferspecialprogramsdesigned

specificallytomeettheneedsofgiftedstudents.Someschoolsprovidespecializededucation

programstogiftedchildrenexclusively.Theseschoolsofferadvancededucationinmathematics,

science,technology,thearts,orotheracademicdisciplines（學科）.

還標準考試挑天才

Manyschooldistrictsrelyonintelligenceteststoidentifygiftedstudents.However,mostguidelines

fordetermininggiftednessrecommendtheuseofacombinationofstandardizedtestscores,rating

systemsdevelopedbyindividualschools,classroomobservationalrecords,andperformance

assessments.

11.天才（數目）難于確定

Becausedefinitionsofgiftednessvarywidely,theprecisenumberofgiftedstudentsintheUnited

Statesisdifficulttodetermine.

12.特殊教育的好處

Giftedchildrenmaystudyaspeciallymodifiedcurriculumormayprogressthroughacademic

subjectsatanacceleratedpace.Accelerationinvolvesadaptingeducationprogramssothatstudents

mayprogressthroughparticularsubjectmaterialquickerthanusual.

理想的計劃是自主、等

Idealprogramsforgiftedstudentsconsidertheindividualneedsofchildrenandoffermultipleoptions

forservices.Theseprogramsgenerallyinvolvebothadvancedcoursematerialsandacceleration.

13.反對過早培養這些天才兒童的論據

Earlyeffortstomodifytheeducationofgiftedchildrenfocusedonprovidingearlyentranceto

kindergarten,grade-skipping,andearlyentrancetocollege.Beginninginthe1960sthesekindsof

accelerationprogramsfelloutoffavorwithsomeeducators,whobelievedthatputtinggifted

studentsinclassroomsofolderchildrenhadthepotentialtocreatesocialandemotionaldifficulties

forthegiftedstudents.

14.日本、匈牙利不那么重視天才兒童，對所有學生嚴格要求

Othernations,includingJapanandHungary,setmuchhigheracademicexpectationsfortheir

childrenthantheU.S.does;theirchildren,giftedornot,risetothechallengebysucceedingathigher

levels.Theneedsofmoderatelygiftedchildrencouldbemetbysimplyteachingthemamore

demandingstandardcurriculum.

15.higherinconventional(memoryandanalytical)abilities

16.為特殊兒童而進行的特種教育specialeducationalprovisionsforexceptionalchildren.

17.已經有這樣一個組織來推動家長和社會參與到教育中美國重視…

ParentsandTeachers,NationalCongressof,alsoNationalParent-TeacherAssociation(PTA),child

andyouthadvocacyvolunteergroup,thelargestofitstypeintheUnitedStates,foundedin1897in

WashingtonD.C.

任務Theorganization'sstatedmissionistosupportandspeakonbehalfof(代表)childrenandyouths

inschoolsandinthecommunity,andbeforegovernmentalagenciesandotherorganizationswhose

decisionsaffectchildren;toassistparentsindevelopingtheskillstheyneedtoraiseandprotecttheir

children;andtoencourageparentalandpublicinvolvementinpublicschools.

組織的影響力Theorganizationismadeupofbranchesineverystate,intheDistrictofColumbia,

andamongschoolsforAmericandependentsinothercountries.In1993nationalmembership

totaledabout7millioninsome27,000localunits.Headquarters(總部)isinChicago.

18.兒童的社會化社會化的定義

老外說的社會化是指兒童與同齡人的交流interaction,對環境的適應和學習等等的行為,Socialization,process

bywhichpeople,especiallychildren,learnacceptableandunacceptablebehaviorsforagiven

environment.

19.Childrenactdifferentlyathomeandintheclassroom

20.反映了發展中的心理理解和社會成熟

inwaysthatreflectdevelopingpsychologicalunderstandingandsocialmaturity.

21.家長在教育中起到的作用

Parentsremaincentralintheexpandingsocialworldofmiddlechildhood.Althoughitiscommonto

viewpeersasreplacingparentsinimportancetoolderchildren,parentscontinuetosupporttheir

children'sself-esteem,defineandreinforcevalues,promoteacademicsuccess,enableparticipation

inneighborhoodandcommunityactivities,andofferasensitiveearandperceptivejudgment.They

arereliablecheerleadersastheirchildrenfacethechallengesofmiddlechildhoodandadolescence

22.對社會的理解和自我意識socialunderstandingandself-awareness

23.liberalarts（文科）andprevocationalandpreprofessionalstudies（職業教育）

對于liberalarts的定義

LiberalArts,termoftenusedtorefertounspecialized（這個詞就說明了文科和面向工作的學科的對立）and

nonscientific（非科學，這個與我們的文科的理解還是一致的）coursesofstudypursuedbyundergraduate

studentsatacollegeoruniversity.Thetermliberalartscanalsorefermorebroadlytoall

undergraduatestudiesintheartsandsciences,whichincludesuchsubjectsasliterature,history,and

politicalscience.

與那些工作前的教育，職業教育不同

Liberalartsstudiesgenerallyaredistinguishedfromprevocationalorpreprofessionalstudies,which

moredirectlyprepareastudentforspecifickindsofemployment.Examplesofprevocationaland

preprofessionalstudiesincludeprogramsinthehealthsciences,engineering,architecture,and

computerprogramming.（歹ij舉）

Prevocationalorpreprofessionalcoursesofstudyconstituteanincreasingmajorityofhigher

educationprogramsworldwide.IntheUnitedStatesfewerthanathirdofallcollegestudents

graduatewithbachelor'sdegreesinliberalartssubjects.（這樣一解釋，我們才發現,原來prevocational

orpreprofessional占的是主流啊！）

擁護者說Liberalarts的好處

Nonetheless,liberalartseducationstillhaspassionateadvocates.Defendersoftheliberalartsclaim

thatabroad-based,nonspecializededucationpreparesyoungpeopleforthevarietyofexperiences

andoccupationstheycanexpecttopursueoverthecourseofalifetime.

24.現在北美采取混合教育，即Plato和Socrates的思想

Today,NorthAmericancollegesanduniversitiesofferundergraduatecoursesofstudythatreflecta

complexmixtureofeducationalobjectives.Inmanyrespects,modernliberalartsprogramsretain

Plato'semphasisonthepursuitofcriticaloriginalityandtheadvancementofknowledge.This

educationalidealdrawsmuchofitsinspirationfromscientificadvancespioneeredatuniversities

emphasizingadvancedresearch.Atthesametime,NorthAmericancollegesanduniversities

demonstrateSocrates'sconcernsforthedevelopmentofmoralandintellectualexcellencethrough

literaryandrhetoricalstudies.Thiseducationalphilosophy（教育哲學）ischampionedespeciallyby

contemporaryproponentsofanundergraduatecurriculumcenteredonthestudyofclassicaltextsof

Westerncivilization.

Aliberalartseducation要有所拓寬

Advocatesofthescientificmodelofeducationandadvocatesoftheliteraryandrhetoricalmodelboth

agreethataliberalartseducationshouldspanabroadrangeofacademicfields.Educatorsatmany

collegesanduniversitieshaveincreasinglyexpandedthisrangetoincludethestudyofnon-Western

textsandcultures.

25.高等教育的作用

institutionsofhighereducationthatofferprogramsbeyondthehighschoollevel.

職業培養

Collegesanduniversitiesprovidenecessarytrainingforindividualswishingtoenterprofessional

careers.

知識能力

Theyalsostrivetodevelopstudents5creativity,insight,andanalyticalskills.

歸根結底，還是為了將來的事業

Byacquaintingstudentswithcomplexideasinanintellectuallystimulatingenvironment,colleges

anduniversitiescanprovideuniqueopportunitiesforpersonalenrichmentwhilealsopreparing

studentsforfuturecareers

職業培養這個方面已經不像想象的那么簡單了，實際上，根據上文，這是大學教育的最重要的任務和目的。所以不

能想當然的認為教育的目的是知識興趣能力而不是為了工作，我認為這個是我們和老米對于教育認識的不同造成

的。

職業培養的原因，是社會的需要，工作的要求。很現實的問題，上大學是為了將來的就業，而工作有特殊的要求，

學校當然要有特殊的培養，專門的教育，所以preparingstudentsforfuturecareers才是大學教育真正的目的

的。

各種職業需要大學生

Suchdiverseprofessionsasengineering,teaching,law,medicine,andinformationscienceallrequire

acollegeeducation.Mostrequiretrainingingraduateorprofessionalschoolaswell.Increasingly,

evenlessspecializedjobsrequiresomepostsecondaryeducation.

26.需要人才的例子

新技術、全球化(市場)需要.…

Thedevelopmentofnewtechnologiesandtheglobalizationoftheworldeconomyhavecreatedhigh

demandforworkerswithcomputer,communications,andotheroccupationalskillsthatcanbe

acquiredatcollegesoruniversities.

電腦技術需要特殊培訓人才

Forexample,computersandothernewtechnologieshaveeliminatedmanylow-skilledjobsina

varietyoffields,butthesesametechnologieshavecreatedwidespreadjobopportunitiesforthose

whohavethepropertraining.

多變的經濟環境需要…思維、能力人才

Inaddition,employersincreasinglyseekoutcollegegraduateswhohavegainedthecriticalthinking

andproblem-solvingskillsnecessarytoadapttochangingeconomicconditions

27.教育的目的和作用

(1)強調民主、平等，新一代

Throughoutthenationandhistory,ithasemphasizedpubliceducationasameansof

transmittingdemocraticvalues,creatingequalityofopportunityandpreparingnewgenerationsof

citizensinsociety.

(2)邏輯、分析.?…能力

Lifeskills-logicalthinking,analysis,creativeproblemsolving

(3)Educationshouldaimatimprovementofbothone'smoralsandfaculties.

(4)具體道德方面

Weshouldwantallstudentstoknowandtomaketheirown:honesty,fairness,self-discipline,fidelity

totask,friends,andfamily,personalresponsibility,loveofacountry,andbeliefintheprinciplesof

liberty,equalityandthefreedomtopracticeone'sfaith.

28.大學生所具的壓力

Economicpressure,parentalpressure,peerpressure,andself-inducedpressure

29.文科教育的意義

Theintellectualfacultiesdevelopedbystudyingsubjectslikehistoryandclassics—anabilityto

synthesizeandrelate,toweighcauseandeffect,toseeeventsinperspective—arejustthefaculties

thatmakecreativeleadersinbusinessoralmostanygeneralfield.

Liberalartteachesyouhowtothink,howtoread,write,andspeakintelligently,getalongwithothers,

andconceptualizeproblems.

30.填鴨式教育的缺點

Hewasbeingsostuffedwithanindigestiblemassofmaterialthathehasnotimetodrawonhis

ownresources,tousehisownmindforanalyzingandsynthesizing,andevaluatingthismaterial

31.鼓勵質疑權威，參照科學發展中的例子

32.學業不好schoolfailure

33.教育相關表述

教師質量teacherquality教師地位thestatusoftheteachingprofession

一個學生的學術能力astudent'sacademicaverage\performance

標準考試standardizedtesting

34.教育相關問題

種族失衡racialimbalance

彳;平等的教育機會unequaleducationalopportunity

教師缺乏teachershortages

擁擠、不安全的學校overcrowdedandunsafeschools

不平等unequalaccesstoeducationaltechnology

35.學生必須是充分專心和被鼓勵;教師必須充分勝任的。

Studentsmustbesufficientlyattentiveandmotivated,andteachersmustbesufficiently

competent.

藝術

1.藝術欣賞將會豐富你的生活

Anappreciationofartwillenrichyourlife.

2.藝術的作用

AccordingtowhatFreud（弗洛伊德）hassaidart,inessence,（本質上）isakindofrelease

（discharge）ofindividuallust,convertingthehumanlibidointoplentifulcreativity.Itisthroughthe

workofartthatartistsexpresstheirpassions,emotions,anddesires.Fromthiswecansee,artis

therefore,firstandforemost,concerningwiththeinnerworldratherthanwiththeoutsideoneasa

whole.

理解永恒、普遍，…理解人性

presentuswithinsightintowhatiseternalanduniversal.Behindtheprofoundworkofartisasetof

principlesofhumanitythatalwaysprevail.

如，圣母和天使畫是超凡精神的體現

Renaissance（文藝復興）paintingofaMadonnaandAngels,formanyviewers,issomehowarevelation

oftranscendentspirituality

又如，貝多芬的作品

aBeethovensymphonyisthelastwordonhumanendurance.

反映人性

Somenarrativearts（novel,film）instructustosomeextent.Thisworkswithmoralreflectthe

humancharacter.

如，莎士比亞寫的麥柯白過分野心有害

Shakespeare'sMacbeth,forinstance,teachesusthatinordinateambitionispernicious.

作為表達方式

Thisfunctionoftheartscanbedenotedas“expressionism”—theartisfsuseofamediumto

expressuniquepassionandinsight.

表達個人、批判社會

Theexpressionofprivatefeelingsandthecriticismofsociety

19世紀藝術為政府服務

19thcentury,artattheserviceofleaders-theChurch,thegovernment,andthearistocracy.

3.貝多芬耳聾作曲

Beethoven,oneofthegreatestcomposersandmusicians,createdmanysymphonies.Astonishingly,

heproducedhismostfamoussymphony,Chorus,（合唱交響）withcompletedeafness.Howcouldhe

manageit?Itmustbetheprominentimaginationthatstimulatedhimtostruggleandthrive,thushe

canevenlisteninspiteofnohearings.

4.生前作品沒有被認可

莫奈法國印象派Impressionism

Monetdidnotfindacclaimandwealthtolaterinhislifeandattimessufferedthroughextreme

poverty.Successalsoallowedhimsomedegreeoffreedominhiswork.

梵高

VanGogh,twoofwhosestilllifepaintingshaverecentlybrokenallrecordsinsellingfor$50million,

soldonlyoneofhispaintingsinhisentirecareer.

艾米莉的呼嘯山莊開始爭議大，后來…

EmilyBrontewasaBritishnovelistandpoet,bestrememberedforheronenovelWutheringHeights,

anacknowledgedclassicofEnglishliterature.Butitreceivedmixedreviewswhenitfirstcameout,

thebookdidnotbecomeanEnglishliteraryclassicuntilfortyyearslater.

美國女詩人狄金森

EmilyDickinsonhassincecometoberegardedasoneofthetwogreatAmericanpoetsofthe19th

century.Thoughalmostunknownandnearlyunpublishedinherownlifetime,Dickinson

5.作品難懂，最終被認可

莫奈日出印象

MonefsfamousworkMImpression:Sunrise"wasnotunderstoodinitially,sinceitseemspeculiarfor

alargeamountofbluewasusedasthemajorcolorforsunlight.However,thisworkeventually

earneditsreputationandhadledtothenameforimpressionism

6.作品反映社會

梵高VanGogh比利時礦工的窮困

“potatoeaters”二Darkandsomber,sometimescrude,theseearlyworksevidencevanGogh'sintense

desiretoexpressthemiseryandpovertyofhumanityashesawitamongtheminersinBelgium.

畢加索鴿子和平主義者,

Picasso“Pigeon”，hewasapacifist,

7.政府資助對藝術的影響

有害蘇聯破壞藝術完整討好政府裝藝術

However,ifthegovernmentextraordinarilyfundsarts,itwouldharmtheintegrityofthem.The

typicalinstanceisU.S.S.R.(=SovietUnion)Inthe1950stothe1990s,theU.S.S.R.SovietUnion

governmentalwaysfundedthearts.Inordertogetthefundingfromthegovernment,manyartists

inU.S.S.R.chosetocreatesomeartyworks,whichthegovernmentpreferredto.Afterseveral

decades*development,theintegrityoftheartsinU.S.S.R.hasbeenheavilythreatened.Manykinds

ofartshavedisappearedandmanypeoplethoughtthatduetothefundingofgovernment,the

integrityofartshadbeenharmed.

8.民間力量的資助

銀行家工業巨頭

Culture—bywhichIchieflymeanthefinearts(美術)—hasalwaysdependedprimarilyonthe

patronageofprivateindividualsandbusinesses,andnotonthegovernment.TheMedici,apowerful

bankingfamilyofRenaissanceItaly,supportedartistsMichelangeloandRaphael.

Duringthe20thCenturytheprimarysourceofculturalsupportwereprivatefundsestablishedby

industrialmagnatesCarnegie,Mellon,RockefellerandGetty.

研究

研究的積極作用

Researchistheexplorationoftheunknownfortrueanswerstoourquestions,andforlasting

solutionstoourenduringproblems.

Researchisalsothechiefmeansbywhichwehumansattempttosatisfyoutinsatiableappetitefor

knowledge,andourcravingtounderstandourselvesandtheworldaroundus.

2.要小心目標、收益模糊的研究

Weshouldbecircumspectaboutresearchwhoseobjectivesaretoovagueandwhosepotential

benefitsaretoospeculative.

3.研究的成本

Expensiveresearchalwayscarriessignificantopportunitycosts—intermsof

4.實驗室researchlaboratories

5.減輕也加深人類苦難

Everynewresearchbreakthroughthathelpreducehumansuffering（人類苦難）isanotherthat

servesprimarilytoaddtothatsuffering..

7.核能兩面性

thephysicsresearcherswhoharnessedthepowerofatomhaveprovideduswithanwithan

alternativesourceofenergy,（thisargumentfliesinthefaceof）thehundredsofthousands

ofinnocentpeoplemurderedandmaimedbyatomicblasts,andbynuclearmeltdowns.

8.化學兩面性

infulfillingthepromiseof“betterlivingthroughchemistry,,researchhasgivenuschemicalweapons

forhumanslaughter（人類屠殺）A

9.科研兩面性

so-called"advances”thatscientificresearchhasbroughtaboutoftenamounttonetlossesfor

humanity

10.科研是明智的投資

moneyspentonresearchisgenerallyasoundinvestment----becauseitisaninvestmentinthe

advancementofhumanknowledgeandinhumanimaginationandspirit.

投資

是好的投資

isagoodinvestment

isgenerallymoneywellinvested

2.投資于investin...

歷史

1.歷史的直接作用

歷史對解釋和理解人類變化的重要性不是簡單的提取（抽象化）

Theimportanceofhistoryinexplainingandunderstandingchangeinhumanbehaviorisnomere

abstraction.

歷史提供廣闊資料研究人類環境，也注重社會變化

History,then,providestheonlyextensivematerialsavailabletostudythehumancondition.Italso

focusesattentiononthecomplexprocessesofsocialchange,includingthefactorsthatarecausing

changearoundustoday.

2.歷史也有美感

Historyasartandentertainmentservesarealpurpose,onaestheticgroundsbutalsoonthelevelof

humanunderstanding.Manyofthehistorianswhomostappealtothegeneralreadingpublicknow

theimportanceofdramaticandskillfulwriting—aswellasofaccuracy.

3.歷史用來學習前人不僅僅是英雄，還有許多平常人

"Historyteachingbyexample*1isonephrasethatdescribesthisuseofastudyofthepast—a

studynotonlyofcertifiableheroes,thegreatmenandwomenofhistorywhosuccessfullyworked

throughmoraldilemmas,butalsoofmoreordinarypeoplewhoprovidelessonsincourage,diligence,

orconstructiveprotest.

4.歷史預測未來StudyingthePast

InThePrince,16th-centuryItalianphilosopherMachiavelliwrote,"Whoeverwishestoforeseethe

futuremustconsultthepast;forhumaneventseverresemblethoseofprecedingtimes.,^History,in

otherwords,cantellusmuchaboutthefuture.Thephrase“thehistoryofthefuture"soundslikean

paradox,butthereismuchtolearnfromlookingatpastvisionsoftheshapeofthingstocome—not

tobeamusedortofeelsuperior,butrathertounderstandtheinnatelyhumanimpulsetoimagineand

dreamabouttomorrow.Asreliableprophecies,thesepastvisionsarepatentlyuseless.Asartifactsof

cultureandbelief,however,theyareguidepoststoabetterunderstandingofourownfuture.

Wellbeforetheconsiderabledeclineofbeliefsinmagicbythe18thcentury,however,human

societieshadalsodevelopedwaystothinkaboutthefutureinclearerrelationtohistoricaltime.That

is,theybecameawarethattheirsocietieshadpasts,andtheytriedtorelatethosepaststothefuture.

Mostoftheforecastswedealwithtoday,suchasthosethatinformmilitaryorbusinesspolicy,

activelyusehistorybecausetheforecastersassumeaconnectionamongpast,present,andfuture

events.Aswewillsee,thetypesofconnectionsonwhichpredictionsarebased,aswellasthe

successrateofthosepredictions,varyhugely.However,theneedtoassesspredictionsapplies

regardless.

5.Thosewhodonotknowthepastarecondemnedtorepeatit

科技學術環境

1.精度??,Theappearanceofprecision

3.培根鼓勵質疑權威

Baconadvocatedtheideaoftestingtheauthorityinordertogainrealknowledge.Causeknowledge

acquirescertainskepticism（懷疑論）towhateverwestudyevensincethedawnofourcivilization.

4.哥白尼的挑戰日心說

HumanbeingshavepaidtributetoCopernicusforthefirststephetookinignoringestablished

boundariesandchallengelong-standingassumptionofastronomy（天文學）forpublishinghis

Heliocentricconjecture（日心說）thattheearthandotherplanetsrevolvesaroundthesun.

5.笛卡兒認為要清除由傳統得來的偏見,辦法就是懷疑

SamethoughthavealsopreoccupiedDescarteswhoconsideredholdinglittlesuspicionstothewholly

spreadreligionsistheonlywaytoexpungeprejudicefromourmundanelife.

6.科學是客觀的，并預言未知

Inthefieldofscience,accordingtoempiricism（經驗主義：尤指感性經驗是認識的唯一源泉的觀點）and

positivism（實證主義：認為感官的感知是人類知識及精確思維唯一可允許的基礎的主義），“science”theories

areobjective,empiricallytestableand“predictive”-theypredictresultsthatcanbechecked

objectively.

例如，蘋果落地

Tosay“theapplefell"istostateafact,whereasNewton'stheoryofuniversalgravitationisabodyof

ideasthatisbasedontheobservationandallowsotherscientiststoexplainwhytheapplefelland

makepredictionaboutotherfallingobjects.

7.科技帶來垃圾

OverflowingLandfillwithoutdateddevices,discardedchemicals,andplasticpackaging,landfillsare

atestamenttothesoberingsideeffectsoftechnologicaladvance.Anaveragecitydwellermay

produceatonofrefuseinayear,avolumethatrapidlyoverflowslocaldumps.Citiesrunningoutof

spaceforlandfilloftenturntoincineratingtheirwasteortransportingittootherareas,althoughup

t