第第6生產系NatureNature生產函Theproductionfunctionspecifies(指定)theumoutputthatcanbeproducedwitha tyofItisdefinedforagivenstateofengineeringandtechnicalknowledge.ItlookslikeQ=F(K,L, Q=Qisthe tyofsomeproductsyouwanttoproduce.Kisthecapitalorplantandequipmentthatyouwillneedfortheproduction.Listhenumberofemployeesor tyofRisacatch-all(包括所有的)termforotherthingslikerawmaterials原料andenergy.Fisthestateofthecurrent 專業術Theproductionfunctionspecifiesumoutputthatcanbeproducedwitha tyofinputsforagivenstateofengineeringandtechnicalknowledge.。②在給定的 背景知在給定的工程和技術知識條件的含義Forexample,wecanimagineabookoftechnicalspecificationsthatshowstheproductionfunctionforgenerating 關于生產函數的不同認 總產量和平均產TotalTotalproductdesignatesthetotalamountofoutputproducedinphysicalunits.Averageproductequalstotalproductdividedbytotalunitsofinput.

總產量和平均產量關系圖

總產量下量增

邊際產Themarginalproduct(邊際產量ofaninputsuchaslaboristheextraoutputaddedby1extraunitofthatinputwhileotherinputsareholdconstant. 邊際產量圖Add1unitofsomeinputAdd1unitofsomeinputandholdotherinputsconstantTheMPisextraoutput.++1Q +1Q最大產勞動的邊際產量的含義是：投入N+1單位勞動時的最大產量與投入N單位勞動時的增加1單位勞動后，所有的分工都要按最優方式重新安排，然后得出投入N+1勞動 of Marginalproduct(perMarginalproduct(perunitof 0

邊際產量和總產量關系圖

總產量速上

總產量下生產的比例生產要求投入多種要素，而且要間通入要間的比例性高一些，有些則要求 遞減規Inproductiontheory,wehavetofirstrememberthatintheshortrun,capitalisfixedbutfactorslikelaborarevariable.Atsomepointthen,theextraormarginalproductofeachadditionalworkermustbegintodecrease.That’sthelawofdiminishing 遞減圖Marginal一種投入的數量由0逐Marginal Q1 規 問Whatwouldhappentowheatproductionland,labor,water,andotherinputswereincreasedbythesameproportion(比例)?Thesequestionsrefertothereturnstoscale a>

規 圖

?a>ba<ba=Q 規 的三種情Therearethreeimportantcasesofreturnstoscale:constantreturnstoscale(規 不變increasingreturnstoscale(規 遞增decreasingreturnstoscale(規 遞減 規 不Constantreturnstoscaledenoteacasewhereachangeinallinputsleadstoaproportional成比例的changeinManyhandicraftindustries手藝行業)showconstantreturns.QKaQK 1980年代的銀行兼 ysts(分析家)thoughtthatthemergers(兼并wouldreducetheunitcostsofbankingdramatically(引人注目地).Studiesfoundthatthemergersdidnotsignificantly(顯著地)decreasecosts.Onepossibleexplanationisreturnstoscaleoverabroadspectrum(光譜)ofoutput. 規 遞Increasingreturnstoscalearisewhenincreaseinallinputsleadstoamore-than-proportional(更大的比例)increaseinthelevelofoutput.QKaQK 影響規 遞增的因Relatedlaborspecialization專業化managerial管理的efficientby-products(副產品andothersuch TheB-2or"StealthThePentagon五角大樓originallywantedtobuild132oftheplanesatacostof$580millionperplane.ButtheSecretaryofDefense( slashed(大幅度削減)thePentagon’srequesttoonly75bombers(轟炸機).Theresult:Thecostperplanesoared高漲toover$800millionduetothelossof 規 遞Decreasingreturnstoscaleoccurswhenabalanced(平衡的)increaseofallinputsleadstoaless-than-proportional更小的比例)increaseintotaloutput.QKaQK 導致規 遞減的原Causesofdiseconomies不經濟ofplantmaygettoobigforeffectiveworkersmaybegintofeelalienated疏遠的)fromtheirjobs. 的汽車工Inrecentyears,GM–theworld’scorporationhasfounditselfwithbothadecliningmarketshare(市場份額)andasubstantial(實際上的)costdisadvantageInfact,GM’slaborcostspercarare$800morethanFord’sand$500morethan 生產Economistsoftenthinkthatmostproductionactivitiesshouldbeabletoattainconstantreturnstoscale.Ifincreasingreturnsprevailed(流行),thelargerscaleofinputsandproductionwouldleadtogreaterproductivity. 短期和長Wedefinetheshortrun(短期asaperiodinwhichfirmscanadjustproductionbychangingvariablefactors(可變要素)suchasmaterialsandlaborbutcannotchangefixedfactors(固定要素)suchascapital.Thelongrun(長期isaperiodlongsothatallfactorsincludingcapitalbe “短期和長期”的說 技Technologicalchangereferstoimprovements(改進)intheprocessesforproducinggoodsandservices,changesinoldproducts,orintroduction(引入)ofnewproducts.Processinnovation(工藝創新engineeringknowledgeimprovestechniquesforexistingProductinnovation(產品創新):neworimprovedproductsareintroducedinthe 技 改變生產函20051995shiftsproductionfunctionupward.

P 產品創Seeingandhearing背景知 總量生產函Q=F(K,Qisthetotaloutput;Kisthecapital;Listhelabor.ThefamousCobb-DouglasproductionY=AKY=AK0.25L1- C-D生產函數的規模收Y=AK0.25L1-Y=AK0.25L1-2Y=A(2K)0.25(2L)1-1.0025Y≈A(1.01K)0.25L1-1.0075Y≈AK0.25(1.01L)1- 生產力的測Wecanusetheaggregateproductionfunctiontomeasureacountry’sproductivityandtechnologicalchange.Inmeasuringproductivity,wedenotelaborproductivityastheamountofoutputperunitoflabor;capitalproductivityasoutputperunitofcapital;andtotalfactorproductivity(全要素生產力asoutputunitoftotalinputsofcapitaland 的經驗數Totalfactorproductivityhasbeenincreasingthroughout貫穿thiscentury.Thecapitalstock資本存量hasgrowingfasterthanthenumberofCapital’srateofreturnhasremainedaboutthesame.Inthelasttwodecades,allmeasuresofproductivityhaveshownamarkedgrowthslowdown( 技術進步貢獻的測 企業的本Whydoesproductiongenerallytakeplaceinfirms:ToexploiteconomiesofmassproductionToraiseresourcesforlarge-scaleTomanagetheproduction 三種企業組織形Thepartnership合伙制TheCorporation公司制現代公司 特Theownership(所 )ofacorporationisdeterminedbytheownershipofthecompany’scommonstock(普通 Inprinciple,theshareholders股東thecompaniestheyThecorporation’smanagersanddirectors(董事)havethelegalpowertomakedecisionsforthecorporation. 公司制的利Thecorporationmayhaveperpetual永久的)succession(連續性)orexistence.Thecorporation’smanagerscanmakedecisionsquickly.Corporatestockholdersenjoylimitedliability( eisdoublytaxed雙重征

背景知公司組織要點 賦予權利必予以監

背景知 組織經濟Economistspointto(表明theimportanceoftransactioncosts交易成本，交易費用)indeterminingtheboundaries(邊界)betweenfirmandEconomichistoryhasshownthevitalimportanceoforganizationalefficiencyandinnovationinincreasingproductivity. 科斯的問 科斯的見 交易成科斯（1937）和威廉姆森（1945）區別了四種類型的交易成，兩種發在簽約期兩種發生在以種雙方 的偶然因素