1、第三章 比較會計:歐洲 Comparative Accounting: Europe 第1頁，共65頁。1會計準則與會計實務的關系會計準則與會計實務經常發生背離現象。主要原因在于：許多國家對違背會計準則行為的處罰很輕微；公司可以自愿披露超過準則規范的信息；一些國家許可公司在報告會計信息時悖離準則，如果這樣做能夠更好地反映公司的經營成果和財務狀況。一些國家僅僅要求個別公司運用會計準則而不要求合并報表遵循會計準則。第2頁，共65頁。2第二章分析了普通法和成文法國家中會計模式的差異。這種差異對會計準則制訂的影響表現為：在普通法國家中，會計準則多由民間機構制定，準則及其制訂過程較多受到公允表達理念的影

2、響；在成文法體系國家中，其會計準則多是由立法機構或政府部門制訂，準則制訂過程首先關注會計信息對法律規定的執行和遵守。第3頁，共65頁。3會計準則是規范財務報表的法規或規則。會計準則的制定過程實質上是影響會計準則的各方面社會力量協調過程。 會計準則與會計實務的關系十分復雜，而且不是一成不變的。在某些情況下，實務來源于準則的規范和指導，而在另外一些情況下，準則來源于對實務的總結和歸納。一旦準則制定之后，實務與準則之間也會經常產生差異。影響差異產生的原因圖示如下： 第4頁，共65頁。4在財務報告中，最關鍵的區別是會計被定位于對財務狀況和經營成果的“公允”反映還是對法律要求的遵循資本主要來自于分散的股

3、東微觀基礎公允反映強調自律和職業判斷成文法體系宏觀統一強調會計報表和財務報告的守法合規 服務于國家經濟發展普通法體系資本主要來自于銀行和政府第5頁，共65頁。5本章選取法國、德國、捷克、荷蘭、英國5個歐洲國家，分析比較這些國家會計模式的差別。5個國家中的法國、德國、荷蘭是歐共體（歐盟前身）1957年建立時的成員國，英國于1973年加入歐共體；這4個國家的會計職業組織都是IASC的創建者。捷克原先是前蘇聯會計模式的代表，體現了計劃經濟向市場經濟轉化的特征；捷克于2004年加入歐盟。第6頁，共65頁。6 France France is the worlds leading advocate of

4、 national uniform accounting.The mandatory use of the national uniform chart of accounts does not burden French businesses because the plan is widely accepted in practice.A feature of French accounting is the dichotomy between individual company financial statements and those for the consolidated gr

5、oup.第7頁，共65頁。7The Plan Comptable Gnral（national accounting code）provides:Objectives and principles of financial accounting and reporting；Definitions of assets，liabilities，shareholders equity，revenues，and expenses；Recognition and valuation rules；A standardized chart of accounts，requirements for its u

6、se，and other bookkeeping requirements。Model financial statements and rules for their presentation。第8頁，共65頁。8Even though individual company accounts must follow statutory reporting requirements，the law allows French companies to follow IFRs. The main reason for this flexibility is that when the EU Se

7、venth Directive was implemented in 1986.第9頁，共65頁。9Financial ReportingFrench companies must report the following:Balance sheetIncome statementNotes to financial statementsDirectors reportAuditors report第10頁，共65頁。10To give a true and fair view，financial statements must be prepared in compliance with l

8、egislation and in good faith. A significant feature of French reporting is the requirement for extensive and detailed footnote disclosures。French law also contains provisions aimed at preventing bankruptcies.The idea is that companies with a good understanding of their internal financial affairs and

9、 that prepare sound projections can better avoid financial difficulties. 第11頁，共65頁。11Accordingly，larger companies (those with net sales in excess of 18 million or more than 300 employees) prepare four documents: a statement of cash position，a statement of changes in financial position or cash flow s

10、tatement，a forecast income statement，and a business plan. A social report also is required of all companies with 300 or more employees.第12頁，共65頁。12Accounting Measurements(p.59)French accounting is characterized by a duality: individual companies must follow fixed regulations while consolidated group

11、s have more flexibility. Accounting for individual companies is the legal basis for distributing dividends and for calculating taxable income.第13頁，共65頁。13法國會計的特征 強調會計信息的處理過程與稅法稅則保持一致(形式重于實質） 實行統一的會計制度 積極推廣社會責任會計高度穩健通過企業會計與合并會計的脫鉤來解決國際慣例與國家特色的矛盾。 第14頁，共65頁。14Germany The German accounting environment

12、has changed continuously and remarkably since the end of world War . At that time， business accounting emphasized national and sectional charts of account (as in France). In a major turn of events， the 1965 Corporation Law moved the German financial reporting system toward British-American ideas.第15

13、頁，共65頁。15Two new laws were passed in 1998. The first added a new paragraph in the third book of the German Commercial Code allowing companies that issue equity or debt on organized capital markets to use internationally accepted accounting principles in their consolidated financial statement. The se

14、cond allowed the establishment of a private-sector organization to set accounting standards for consolidated financial statements.第16頁，共65頁。16Three characteristic of German accountingCreditor protection is a fundamental concern of German accounting as embodied in the Commercial code. Conservative ba

15、lance sheet valuations are central to creditor protection. This creates a tendency to undervalue assets and overvalue liabilities. Reserves are seen as protection against unforeseen risk and possible insolvency.German accounting is designed to compute a prudent income amount that leaves creditors un

16、harmed after distributions are made to owners.第17頁，共65頁。17The second fundamental characteristic of German accounting is Tax law also largely determines commercial accounting. The determination principle states that taxable income is determined by whatever is booked in a firms financial records. The

17、dominance of tax accounting means that no distinction is made between financial statements prepared for tax purposes and those published in financial reports.第18頁，共65頁。18The third fundamental characteristic of German accounting is its reliance on statutes and court decisions. Nothing else has any bi

18、nding or authoritative status. To understand German accounting， one must look to both HGB (German Commercial Code) and a considerable body of case law.第19頁，共65頁。19Accounting Regulation and EnforcementBefore 1998 Germany had no financial accounting standard-setting function， as it is understood in En

19、glish-speaking countries. The German Institute provided consultation in various processes of lawmaking that affected accounting and financial reporting.Similar consultation was given by the Frankfurt Stock Exchange，German trade unions，and accounting academics.第20頁，共65頁。20The 1998 law on control and

20、transparency introduced the requirements for the Ministry of Justice to recognize a private national standard-setting body to serve the following objectives:Develop recommendations for the application of accounting standards for consolidated financial statements.Advise the Ministry of Justice on new

21、 accounting legislation.Represent Germany in international accounting organization such as the IASB第21頁，共65頁。21The German Accounting Standards Committee(GASC) was founded shortly thereafter，and duly recognized by the Ministry of Justice as the German standard-setting authority.The GASC oversees the

22、German Accounting Standard Board， which does the technical work and issues the accounting standards. The GASB is made up of seven independent experts with a background in auditing，financial analysis，academia，and industry.第22頁，共65頁。22It is important to emphasize that GASB standards are authoritative

23、recommendations that only apply to consolidated financial statements.The German auditing profession is small.Two classes of auditors are legally sanctioned to conduct independent audit examinations of companies. 第23頁，共65頁。23Financial ReportingThe 1985 accounting Act specifies different accounting，au

24、diting，and financial reporting requirements according to company size，not according to the form of business organization. There are three size: classes-small，medium，and large- defined in terms of balance sheet totals，annual sales totals，and numbers of employees.Companies with publicly traded securit

25、ies are always classified as large.第24頁，共65頁。24The 1985 Accounting Act specifies the content and format of financial statements， which include the following:Balance sheetIncome statementNotesManagement reportAuditors report第25頁，共65頁。25Small companies are exempt from the audit requirement and may pre

26、pare an abbreviated balance sheet. Small and medium-sized companies may prepare abbreviated income statements， and fewer disclosure requirements for their notes as well.第26頁，共65頁。26A feature of the German financial reporting system is a private report by the auditors to a companys managing board of

27、directors and supervisory board. This report comments on the companys future prospects and，especially，factors that may threaten its survival.This report can run several hundred pages for large German companies. But it is private information， not available to shareholders.第27頁，共65頁。27Accounting Measu

28、rements(p.64)Because of Conservative idea，provisions as estimates of future expenses or losses are used heavily.Provisions must be set up for deferred maintenance expenses，product guarantees，potential losses from pending transactions，and other uncertain liabilities.第28頁，共65頁。28Most companies make pr

29、ovisions as large as possible because legally booked expenses directly affect the determination of taxable income.Provisions give German companies many opportunities to smooth income.第29頁，共65頁。29德國會計的特征經濟政策法制化通過政治法律制度制約和調節市場經濟運行，影響會計選擇。 稅法和稅則對企業會計有重要影響，各納稅主體必須符合稅法的要求。 企業可以根據法律的許可提取大量的準備。德國財務報表披露的會計信

30、息非常穩健，能夠在相當程度上抗衡和化解市場經濟中的風險，從而有效地保護企業的經濟實力。 第30頁，共65頁。30 Czech Republic (CR) 自20世紀起，捷克的會計模式經歷了多次導向性變革。二戰之前，捷克會計原則深受歐洲德語系國家影響。在二戰之后，捷克作為東歐社會主義陣營的成員，其會計規范轉向蘇聯統一會計模式。而1989年以后，捷克開始由計劃經濟向市場經濟轉型，其會計規范也發生了重大轉變。1991年捷克議會通過了會計法，該法案在很大程度上遵循了歐盟第四號和第七號指令，并借鑒了國際會計準則的相關規定。 第31頁，共65頁。31As a centrally planned econo

31、my was being constructed， Czech accounting practice was based on the soviet model. The administrative needs of various central government institutions were satisfied through such features as a uniform chart of accounts，detailed accounting methods，and uniform financial statements，obligatory for all e

32、nterprises.第32頁，共65頁。32After 1989 Czech moved quickly toward a market-oriented economy， relatively accounting turned westward，reflecting the principles embodied in the European Union Directives.第33頁，共65頁。33Accounting regulation and enforcementThe new Commercial Code was enacted by Parliament in 1991

33、 and became effective on January 1，1992. This legislation includes requirements for annual financial statements，income taxes， audits，and shareholdersmeetings.The Accountancy Act that sets out the requirements for accounting was passed in 1991 and became effective on January 1，1993. 第34頁，共65頁。341991年

34、會計法強調運用賬戶表（歐盟為了保持各國會計信息的可比性而制定）進行會計記錄和編制報表，并引入了“真實與公允”和“實質重于形式”原則。但由于當時的捷克會計實務界習慣于計劃經濟體制下會計模式，財務信息需求主體也未真正形成，一系列會計改革措施在實務中并未得到很好的運用。隨著捷克加入歐盟的步伐加快及1991 年會計法日益顯露出來的不足， 捷克共和國于2000 年起對會計法重新進行修訂并于2002 年1 月1 日開始實行修訂后的會計法。 第35頁，共65頁。35The Accountancy Act was significantly amended with effect from January 1

35、，2002， primarily to bring Czech accounting closer to IAS/IFRs.The Ministry of Finance is responsible for accounting principles. Ministry of Finance decrees set out acceptable measurement and disclosure practices that companies must follow.Thus，accounting in the CR is influenced by the Commercial Cod

36、e，the Accountancy Act，and Ministry of Finance decrees.第36頁，共65頁。36Auditing is regulated by the Act on Auditors，passed in 1992. This act established the Chamber of Auditors，a self-regulated professional body that oversees the registration，education， examination，and disciplining of auditors，the settin

37、g of auditing standards，and the regulation of audit practice，such as the format of the audit report.第37頁，共65頁。37The audit is designed to ensure that the accounts have been kept according to applicable legislation and decrees and that the financial statements present a true and fair view of the compa

38、nys financial position and results.第38頁，共65頁。38Financial ReportingFinancial statements must be consisting of:Balance sheetProfit and loss account (income statement)Notes (include a cash flow statement)Czech companies have the option of using IAS/IFRS or Czech accounting standards in preparing the th

39、eir consolidated financial statements. However，listed Czech companies are required to prepare audited financial statements according to IAS/IFRS.第39頁，共65頁。39Accounting Measurements(p.68)Goodwill arising from a business combination is written off in the first year of consolidation or capitalized and

40、amortized over no more than 20 years.Leased assets are typically not capitalized-an example of form over substance.Legal reserves are required: Profits are appropriated annually until they reach 20% of equity for corporations and 10% for limited liability companies.第40頁，共65頁。40捷克的會計規范改革進程是不斷向國際會計準則靠

41、攏并以其為最終目標的過程， 該進程中較少保留捷克的本土特色。這是由于捷克的籌資渠道、與歐洲大陸政治、經濟的密切聯系等因素不斷作用的結果，同時也是由于捷克在歷史傳統上就沒有太多自己的特色， 其大多數時間都是融于歐洲大陸模式，特別是德語國家模式之中。并且，捷克會計國際化也是由于歐盟會計國際化進程加快這一外在因素推動所致。 第41頁，共65頁。41The NetherlandsDutch accounting presents several interesting paradoxes as follow:The Dutch have relatively permissive statutory

42、accounting and financial reporting requirements but very high professional practice standards. The Netherlands is a code law country， yet accounting is oriented toward fair presentation. Financial reporting and tax accounting are two separate activities. Furthermore， the fairness orientation develop

43、ed without a strong stock market influence.第42頁，共65頁。42Accounting in the Netherlands is considered a branch of business economics. As a result，much economic thought has been devoted to accounting topics and especially to accounting measurements.Highly respected professional accountants are often par

44、t-time professors. Thus，academic thought has a major influence upon ongoing practice.第43頁，共65頁。43Dutch accountants are also will to consider foreign ideas. The Netherlands is also home to several of largest multinational enterprises in the world. These large multinationals have influenced financial

45、reporting of other Dutch companies.第44頁，共65頁。44Accounting Regulation and EnforcementAccounting regulations in the Netherlands remained liberal until 1970，when the Act on Annual Financial Statements was enacted. Among the major provisions of the 1970 act on the P.55.第45頁，共65頁。45The council for Annual

46、 Reporting issues guidelines on generally acceptable accounting principles. The council is a private organization and is financed by grant from the business community and NIvRA. Even though the councils guidelines do not have the force of law， they are followed by most large companies and auditors.第

47、46頁，共65頁。46荷蘭年報條例（the Act on Annual Accounts Statements）對荷蘭企業的財務報告制定了基本的法律要求，適用于荷蘭的所有企業，包括上市公司和非上市公司。條例主要包括三部分內容：一般要求、披露要求和關于“企業庭”（the Enterprise Chamber）的規則。“企業庭”是阿姆特丹法院特高下設的一個法庭，專門負責解決公司和與其財務報告有利害關系的各方出現的爭端。第47頁，共65頁。47根據年報條例，與某公司財務報告有直接利害關系的個人和組織，在該公司財務報告公布日或批準日之后兩個月內可以就該公司財務報告的虛假和失誤等問題向企業庭提出控告。C

48、hamber decisions may lead to modifications of financial statements or various penalties. Even thought the rulings apply only to defendant companies， they sometimes state general rule that may influence the reporting practices of other companies. 第48頁，共65頁。48Auditing in the Netherlands is a self-regu

49、lated profession. Its governing body is the Netherlands Institute of Register-accountants (NIvRA)， which has approximately 13000 members. It is fully autonomous in setting auditing standards and its strong professional code of conduct has statutory status.第49頁，共65頁。49Financial ReportingThe quality o

50、f Dutch financial reporting is uniformly high. Statutory financial statements should be filed in Dutch，but English，French，and German are also acceptable. The financial statements must include the following:Balance sheetIncome statementNotesDirectorsreportOther prescribed information第50頁，共65頁。50A cas

51、h flow statement is not required，but is recommended by a council guideline，and most Dutch companies provide one.Small companies are exempt from the requirements for an audit，and they may file an abbreviated income statement and balance sheet.第51頁，共65頁。51Medium-sized companies must be audited，but may

52、 publish a condensed income statement. Small，Medium-sized，and large companies are defined in the civil code.Dutch companies are permitted to prepare financial statements using IFRS or U.S. GAAP instead of Dutch accounting standards.第52頁，共65頁。52Accounting Measurements(p.72)The Dutch flexibility towar

53、d accounting measurements may be most evident in permitting the use of current values for tangible assets.Because Dutch companies have flexibility in applying measurement rules，one would suspect that there are opportunities for income smoothing.In addition，certain items can bypass the income stateme

54、nt through direct adjustment to reserves in shareholdersequity.第53頁，共65頁。53荷蘭會計的特征1.荷蘭的財務會計與稅務會計截然分開，稅法對財務報告的影響不大。2. 荷蘭是唯一設置會計法庭的國家。隸屬于會計法庭的商會可就報表爭議對企業采取法律行為。3荷蘭會計的重要特征是極端的自由選擇與高度的職業標準相結合。第54頁，共65頁。54United KingdomAccounting in the United Kingdom developed as an independent discipline， pragmatically

55、 responding to the needs and practices of business. Over time，successive companies laws added structure and other requirements，but still allowed accountants considerable flexibility in the application of professional judgment.第55頁，共65頁。55Since the 1970s the most important source of development in co

56、mpany law has been the EU Directives，most notably the 4th and 7th. At the same time，accounting standards and the standard-setting process have become more authoritative.The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to develop an accountancy profession.The concept of a fair presentation of financial results and position (the true and fair view) is also of British origin.第56頁，共65頁。56Accounting Regulation and Enforcement英國會計準則的制定經歷了三個