1、Environmental problems caused by Istanbul subway excavation and suggestionsfor remediation伊斯坦布爾地鐵開挖引起的環(huán)境問題及補(bǔ)救建議Ibrahim OcakAbstract：Many environmental problems caused by subway excavations have inevitably become an important point in city life. These problems can be categorized as transporting and s

2、tocking of excavated material, trafc jams, noise, vibrations, piles of dust mud and lack of supplies. Although these problems cause many difculties,the most pressing for a big city like Istanbul is excavation,since other listed difculties result from it. Moreover, these problems are environmentally

3、and regionally restricted to the period over which construction projects are underway and disappear when construction is nished. Currently, in Istanbul, there are nine subway construction projects in operation, covering approximately 73 km in length; over 200 km to be constructed in the near future.

4、 The amount of material excavated from ongoing construction projects covers approximately 12 million m3. In this study, problemsprimarily, the problem with excavation waste(EW)caused by subway excavation are analyzed and suggestions for remediation are offered.摘要：許多地鐵開挖引起的環(huán)境問題不可避免地成為城市生活的重要部分。這些問題可歸

5、類為開挖肥料的運(yùn)輸和儲存、交通堵塞、噪音污染、震動、成堆的灰塵和泥漿以及物資不足。雖然這些問題引起很多困難，對于一個(gè)像伊斯坦布爾這樣的城市，最亟待解決的問題是開挖的問題，因?yàn)槠渌幌盗袉栴}都是由此引起的。此外，這些問題受環(huán)境和地域限制并具有周期性，他們隨工程項(xiàng)目開始和結(jié)束而出現(xiàn)和消失。最近，伊斯坦布爾有9條地鐵項(xiàng)目在施工，總長約有73km，另外，將有超過200km的地鐵線會在不久的將來動工。正在施工的項(xiàng)目將產(chǎn)生約1200萬m的工程垃圾。本文將分析由地鐵建設(shè)帶來的問題，主要是開挖廢料的問題，并對補(bǔ)救辦法提出建議。Keywords: Environmental problems .Subway e

6、xcavation . Waste management . 3Excavation waste關(guān)鍵詞：環(huán)境問題 地鐵開挖 廢物處理 開挖廢料I. OcakRail Transport Construction Department,Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality,IETT General Directorate, Karakoy-Istanbul, TurkeyI. Ocak (郵件)Mining Engineering Department, Istanbul University,Avclar-Istanbul, Turkeye-mail:Intro

7、ductionNowadays, cities are spreading over larger areas with increasing demand on extending transport facilities. Thus,all over the world, especially in cities where the population exceeds 300,000400,000 people, railway-based means of transportation is being accepted as the ultimate solution.Therefo

8、re, large investments in subway and light rail construction are required. The construction of stated systems requires surface excavations, cut and cover tunnel excavations, bored tunnel excavations, redirection of infrastructures and tunnel construction projects. These elements disturb the environme

9、nt and affect everyday life of citizens in terms of running water, natural gas, sewer systems and telephone lines.簡介：現(xiàn)如今，城市的大面積擴(kuò)張要求交通設(shè)施快速增長。因此，全世界，特別是在人口超過30萬-40萬的城市，軌道交通逐漸被認(rèn)為是最終的解決辦法。正因如此，地鐵和輕軌上的大規(guī)模投資是必然的。整個(gè)軌道交通系統(tǒng)的建設(shè)包括地表建設(shè)、明挖隧道開挖、鉆孔隧道開挖、地下建筑的改造和隧道建設(shè)項(xiàng)目。這些都會影響周圍的環(huán)境并在自來水、天然氣、排污和電話線等方面影響市民的日常生活。One rea

10、son why metro excavations affect the environment is the huge amount of excavated material produced.Moreover, a large amount of this excavated material is composed of muddy and bentonite material. Storing excavated material then becomes crucial. A considerable amount of pressure has been placed on of

11、cials to store and recycle any kind of excavated material. Wastemanagement has become a branch of study by itself. Many studies have been carried out on the destruction, recycling and storing of solid, (Vlachos 1975; Huang et al. 2001; Winkler 2005;Huang et al. 2006; Khan et al. 1987; Boadi and Kuit

12、unen 2003; Staudt and Schroll 1999; Wang 2001; Okuda and Thomson 2007; Yang and Innes 2007), organic (Edwards et al. 1998, Jackson 2006; Debra et al. 1991; Akhtar and Mahmood 1996; Bruun et al. 2006; Minh et al. 2006),plastic (Idris et al. 2004; Karani and Stan Jewasikiewitz 2007; Ali et al. 2004; N

13、ishino et al. 2003; Vasile et al.2006; Kato et al. 2003; Kasakura et al. 1999; Hayashi et al. 2000), toxic (Rodgers et al. 1996; Bell and Wilson 1988; Chen et al. 1997; Sullivan and Yelton 1988), oily (Ahumada et al. 2004; Al-Masri and Suman 2003), farming(Garnier et al. 1998; Mohanty 2001) and radi

14、oactive materials (Rocco and Zucchetti 1997; Walker et al. 2001;Adamov et al. 1992; Krinitsyn et al. 2003).地鐵建設(shè)影響環(huán)境的一個(gè)原因是開挖產(chǎn)生的大量垃圾，而且大部分開挖垃圾都是泥土。工程垃圾的處理是關(guān)鍵，負(fù)責(zé)儲存和回收利用這些工程廢料的人員承受著非常大的壓力，廢物處理也因此成為一個(gè)單獨(dú)的研究分支。關(guān)于這些垃圾的銷毀、回收利用和儲存的研究已經(jīng)開展了很多：泥土（Vlachos 1975; Huang et al. 2001; Winkler 2005;Huang et al. 2006; K

15、han et al. 1987; Boadi and Kuitunen 2003; Staudt and Schroll 1999; Wang 2001; Okuda and Thomson 2007; Yang and Innes 2007）、有機(jī)物（Edwards et al. 1998, Jackson 2006; Debra et al. 1991; Akhtar and Mahmood 1996; Bruun et al. 2006; Minh et al. 2006）、塑料（Idris et al. 2004; Karani and Stan Jewasikiewitz 2007;

16、 Ali et al. 2004; Nishino et al. 2003; Vasile et al.2006; Kato et al. 2003; Kasakura et al. 1999; Hayashi et al. 2000）、油脂（Ahumada et al. 2004; Al-Masri and Suman 2003）、耕地（Garnier et al. 1998; Mohanty 2001）、放射性物質(zhì)（Rocco and Zucchetti 1997; Walker et al. 2001;Adamov et al. 1992; Krinitsyn et al. 2003）。

17、Today, traditional materials, including sand, stone, gravel, cement, brick and tiles are being used as major building components in the construction sector. All of these materials have been produced from existing natural resources and may have intrinsic distinctions that damage the environment due t

18、o their continuous exploitation. In addition, the cost of construction materials is incrementally increasing. In Turkey, the prices of construction materials have increased over the last few years (Fig. 1). Therefore,it is very important to use excavation and demolition wastes (DW) in construction o

19、perations to limit the environmental impact and excessive increase of raw material prices. Recycling ratios for excavation waste (EW) and DW of some countries are inshown Table 1 (Hendriks and Pietersen 2000). The recycling ratio for Turkey is10%.Every year, 14 million tons of waste materials are ge

20、nerated in Istanbul. These waste materials consist of 7.6 million tons EW, 1.6 million tons organic materials and 2.7 million tons DW (IMM 2007). The distribution of waste materials, according to listed sources, can be seen in Figs. 2 and 3. Approximately, 3.7 million tons of municipal wastes are pr

21、oduced in Istanbul every year. However, the recycling rate is approximately equal to only 7%. This rate will increase to 27%, when the construction of the plant is completed. Medical wastes are another problem, with over 9,000 tons dumped every year. Medical wastes are disposed by burning. Distribut

22、ions of municipal wastes are given in Fig. 4.目前，包括沙子、石頭、砂礫、水泥、磚頭、瓷磚在內(nèi)的傳統(tǒng)材料被建筑部門用作主要的建筑成分。所有這些材料都是從現(xiàn)有的自然資源中生產(chǎn)出來的，具有固有的特性，并因不斷的開采而對環(huán)境造成危害。另外，建筑材料的價(jià)格正在逐漸上漲，在土耳其，近幾年的建筑材料的價(jià)格一直在上漲（見圖1）。因此，為減輕環(huán)境破壞和減緩原材料價(jià)格的過渡上漲，在建筑工程中循環(huán)利用開挖廢料和拆遷廢料是非常重要的。一些國家的開挖廢料和拆遷廢料的回收利用率見表1（Hendriks and Pietersen 2000），土耳其的回收利用率是10%。每年伊

23、斯坦布爾會產(chǎn)生1400萬噸垃圾，其中包括7600萬噸開挖廢料，1600萬噸有機(jī)材料，2700萬噸拆遷廢料（IMM2007），按來源分類，垃圾的分布情況如圖2、3。每年伊斯坦布爾約會產(chǎn)生3700萬噸城市垃圾，然而垃圾的回收利用率卻只有7%左右，垃圾處理廠建設(shè)完成之后，回收比率將上升到27%。另一個(gè)問題的醫(yī)療垃圾，每年將傾倒9000噸醫(yī)療垃圾，目前處理醫(yī)療垃圾的方式是焚燒。城市垃圾的分類見圖4。Fig. 1 The increase of construction material prices over the last 10 years圖1 最近10年建筑材料價(jià)格增長Table 1 Compa

24、rison of a few countries construction waste concentration表1 部分國家建筑垃圾濃度對比Fig. 2 Current status of solid waste generation in Istanbul圖2 伊斯坦布爾當(dāng)前固體垃圾的組成Fig. 3 Current status of solid waste distribution in Istanbul圖3 伊斯坦布爾當(dāng)前固體垃圾的分布Fig. 4 Current status of municipal waste distribution in Istanbul圖4 伊斯坦布爾當(dāng)

25、前城市垃圾的分布In this study, environmental problems in Istanbul, such as EW resulting from tunnelling operations, DW resulting from building demolition and home wastes, are evaluated. Resources of EW, material properties and alternatives of possible usage are also evaluated.本文論及伊斯坦布爾的環(huán)境問題，如隧道開挖產(chǎn)生的開挖廢料、建筑拆

26、遷產(chǎn)生的拆遷垃圾、生活垃圾，也涉及開挖垃圾的來源、材料屬性以及使用替代材料的可能。Railway system studiesThree preliminary studies concerning transportation in Istanbul were conducted in 1985, 1987 and 1997. A fourth study is currently being conducted. The Istanbul Transportation Main Plan states that railway systems must constitute the mai

27、n facet of Istanbuls transportation net-work (IMM 2005). In addition to existing lines, within the scope of the Marmaray Project, 36 km of metro, 96 km of light rail, and 7 km of tram, with a total of 205 km of new railway lines, must be constructed. Consequently, the total length of railway line wi

28、ll exceed 250 km.軌道交通系統(tǒng)研究關(guān)于伊斯坦布爾交通系統(tǒng)的三個(gè)研究分別在1985年、1987年和1997年開展，第四個(gè)研究項(xiàng)目將于近期開展。伊斯坦布爾交通總規(guī)劃表明，軌道交通系統(tǒng)將成為伊斯坦布爾交通網(wǎng)絡(luò)的主要部分（IMM 2005)。除了目前的線路，根據(jù)Marmaray項(xiàng)目計(jì)劃，包括36km地鐵、96km輕軌、7km有軌電車在內(nèi)的總計(jì)205km新軌道線路將建設(shè)完成。因此，軌道交通線路總長將超過250km。Details regarding railway lines currently under construction in Istanbul are given in Ta

29、ble 2and Fig. 5.Railway lines in the project stage or tender stage are given in Table 3 (IMM 2004).伊斯坦布爾正在施工的軌道交通線路詳情見表2和圖5，處于設(shè)計(jì)或投標(biāo)階段的軌道交通線路見表3（IMM 2004）。Table 2 Ongoing railway systems in Istanbul表2 伊斯坦布爾施工中的軌道交通線路Fig. 5 Ongoing railway system studies in Istanbul圖5 伊斯坦布爾施工中的軌道交通線路研究Table 3 Railway

30、lines in project or tender stage in Istanbul表3 伊斯坦布爾設(shè)計(jì)或投標(biāo)中的軌道交通線路Environmentalexcavations地鐵建設(shè)引起的環(huán)境問題 problems caused by subwayTransporting and storing excavated material開挖廢料的運(yùn)輸和儲存Almost all land in Istanbul is inhabited. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to store and recycle excavated material o

31、btained either from metro excavations or other construction activities, causing minimal damage and disturbance to the city.The collection, temporary storage, recycling, reuse,transportation and destruction of excavated material and construction waste are controlled by environmental law number 2872.

32、According to this law, it is essential that:伊斯坦布爾幾乎所有的土地都有人居住，因此，為了將對城市產(chǎn)生的破壞降到最低，包括地鐵開挖和其他建筑工程引起的開挖廢料的儲存和回收利用顯得非常重要。環(huán)境法2872條規(guī)定了開挖廢料和建筑垃圾的采集、暫時(shí)儲存、回收、重新利用、運(yùn)輸和銷毀等方面，主要內(nèi)容有：1. Waste must be reduced at its source.2. Management must take necessary precautions to reduce the harmful effects of waste.1、垃圾必須從源

33、頭控制；2、管理部門必須采取必要的措施以減少垃圾的不良影響；3. Excavated material must be recycled and reused,especially within the constructioninfrastructure.4. Excavated material and construction waste must not be mixed.5. Waste must be separated from its source and subjected to “selective destruction” in order to form a sound

34、 system for recycling and destruction.6. Producers of excavated material or construction waste must provide required funds to destroy waste.3、開挖廢料必需回收利用，特別是地下結(jié)構(gòu)工程中的開挖廢料；4、開挖廢料和建筑垃圾必需區(qū)分開來；5、廢料必需在源頭分類，并按“選擇性銷毀”的原則形成一套完整的回收和銷毀系統(tǒng)；6、開挖廢料或者建筑垃圾的責(zé)任人必須為處理垃圾提供必需的費(fèi)用。According to environmental laws, municipali

35、ties are responsible for nding areas within their province limits to excavate and operate these systems. Both the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and Waste Recycling Company are the foundations that actively carryout all operations regarding excavated material.根據(jù)環(huán)境法規(guī)定，政府有

36、責(zé)任在行政范圍內(nèi)規(guī)劃一定的土地用來建設(shè)和運(yùn)行垃圾回收處理系統(tǒng)，伊斯坦布爾環(huán)保局和垃圾回收公司是負(fù)責(zé)廣泛開展開挖廢料處理的主要部門。Since dumping areas have limited space, they are quickly lled, without any availableplausible solution for remediation. In addition, existing dumping areas are far away from metro excavation areas. This means that loaded trucks are com

37、peting with city trafc, causing trafc congestion with their low speed and pollutants dropping off their wheels or bodies. Furthermore, this results in a loss of money and labour.垃圾堆放空間有限，很快就會堆滿，目前卻又沒有任何有效可行的解決辦法。除此之外，目前的垃圾堆放區(qū)遠(yuǎn)離地鐵建設(shè)的地方，這意味著滿載的貨車將擠進(jìn)城市交通，并因低速和車輪、車身上掉落的污染物而引起交通堵塞，另外，這也將導(dǎo)致資金和人力的短缺。Detail

38、s regarding excavated material pertaining to ongoing railway systems in Istanbul are given in Table 4.The cross section in the table represents only tunnels on the main line. Given the fact that the swelling value of rock is 1.41.5, together with the diameter values given above, theapproximate amoun

39、t of excavated material from ongoing railway excavation will be equal to 12 million m3. All tunnels have been excavated with new Austrian tunnelling method (NATM), earth pressure balance method (EPBM), tunnel boring machine (TBM), and cut and cover method.伊斯坦布爾建設(shè)中軌道交通線路的開挖廢料詳情，見表4。表格中橫斷面代表主要線路上的隧道不分

40、。巖石的實(shí)際膨脹率是1.4-1.5，綜合考慮表中給出的直徑，建設(shè)中的軌道交通線路產(chǎn)生的開挖廢料約有1200萬m。所有隧道均采用新奧法（NATM）、土壓平衡法（EPBM）、TBM法或明挖法進(jìn)行施工。Existing dumping areas in Istanbul are listed in Table 5.When Tables 4 and 5 are examined together, it can be seen that existing dumping areas can only accommodate material excavated from the metro cons

41、truction. Another important matter according to Table 5 is that 93% of existing dumping areas are on the European side of Istanbul, with 88% of them in Kemerburgaz. Thus, all excavated material on the Anatolian side must cross over European site every day for a distance of approximately 150 km. Ever

42、y day, on average, 3,000 trucks carry various types of excavated material to Kemerburgaz from other parts of Istanbul. This leads to a waste of time and increased environmental pollution.伊斯坦布爾現(xiàn)存的垃圾堆放區(qū)見表5。對比分析表4、表5，我們會發(fā)現(xiàn)，現(xiàn)存的垃圾傾倒區(qū)僅能滿足地鐵開挖產(chǎn)生的開挖廢料。表5反映的另一個(gè)嚴(yán)重問題是，93%的現(xiàn)存垃圾傾倒區(qū)都在伊斯坦布爾靠歐洲一側(cè)，其中的88%是在凱梅爾布爾加茲。因此

43、，安那托利亞所有的開挖廢料每天必須穿過約150km的距離來傾倒。每天約有3000輛來自伊斯坦布爾其他各地方的卡車滿載開挖廢料前往凱梅爾布爾加茲，從而導(dǎo)致時(shí)間的浪費(fèi)并加重了環(huán)境污染。3Table 4 Excavation volume occurred from ongoing railway systems in Istanbul表4 伊斯坦布爾建設(shè)中軌道交通線路開挖量Table 5 Existing dumping areas in Istanbul表5 伊斯坦布爾目前的垃圾傾倒區(qū)Another problem related to excavation is that the materi

44、als, obtained from EPBM machines (Fig. 6) and muddy areas, cannot be directly sent to dumping facilities. They have to be kept in suitable places, so that water can be drained off from the material and then sent to proper facilities. However, this causes muddy material to drop from trucks, causing i

45、ncreased litter in cities (Fig.7).和開挖相關(guān)的另一個(gè)問題是，來自土壓平衡盾構(gòu)機(jī)械和污泥區(qū)的廢料（見圖6）不能直接傾倒，為使水能從中順利排出并使用合適的處理設(shè)備，這些廢料必須在合適的地方暫存。然而這仍然會導(dǎo)致污泥從卡車中流出并增加城市垃圾（見圖7）。Fig. 6 Muddy material resulting from EPBM圖6 土壓平衡法施工產(chǎn)生的泥漿Fig. 7 Excavated material stocked for draining圖7 正在排水的開挖廢料Trafc jamSince most of the railway constructi

46、ons are carried out in the most densely populated areas, city trafc must be closed and redirected during the construction. In most cases, an entire area must be closed for trafc. For example, Uskudar square is now closed due to the Marmaray project and most bus stops and piers have been moved to oth

47、er locations.交通堵塞由于大部分軌道交通線路都處在人口最稠密的地方，在施工期間，城市交通必須關(guān)閉并重新疏導(dǎo)。大部分情況下，一整個(gè)區(qū)域的交通都會被中斷。例如，由于Marmaray項(xiàng)目的施工，于斯屈達(dá)爾廣場現(xiàn)已全部封閉，而且大部分公交站牌都已遷移到其他地方。With cut and cover constructions, the case becomes even more complicated. In this case, an entire route is closed to trafc because cut and cover tunnels are constructe

48、d across streets. In order to ensure that machine operation and construction can continue uninterrupted and tominimize the risk of accidents to the people living around the construction zone, streets are either totally closed to trafc or trafc is redirected (Figs. 8, 9). This causes long-term diffic

49、ulties.For example, shop owners on closed streets have difculties reaching their shops, stocking andtransporting their goods and retaining customers.采用明挖法施工時(shí)，情況會變得更為復(fù)雜。這時(shí)，由于明挖法施工隧道會穿過馬路，整條交通線路都會被中斷。為了保證機(jī)械操作和施工的連續(xù)性并將對施工區(qū)周圍人們生活的影響降到最低，道路交通只有完全中斷或重新疏導(dǎo)（見圖8、圖9）。這也會引起其他問題，比如，道路兩邊的店主進(jìn)出商店、進(jìn)出貨物、招攬顧客都會遇到困難。Fi

50、g. 8 Redirected trafc during tram construction圖8 有軌電車施工時(shí)交通的重新疏導(dǎo)Fig. 9 SultanciftligiEdirnekap tram construction and closed streets圖9 SultanciftligiEdirnekapi 有軌電車建設(shè)和中斷的街道Noise and vibration噪音污染和振動For metro excavations, a lot of different machines are used.These machines seriously disturb the environ

51、ment with their noise and vibrations. In some regions, excavation may be as close as 56 m away from inhabited apartment blocks (Fig. 10). In such cases, people are disturbed as excavation may take a signicant period of time to be completed.地鐵建設(shè)中會用到各種不同的機(jī)械設(shè)備，這些機(jī)械設(shè)備產(chǎn)生的噪聲和震動嚴(yán)重影響了周圍的環(huán)境。有些地區(qū)，施工操作距離居民樓近達(dá)5

52、-6米（見圖10），這種情況下，居民生活會受到嚴(yán)重打擾，直到施工結(jié)束都會是斷難熬的日子。Drillingblasting may be needed in conventional methods for drilling through hard rock. In this case, no matter how controlled the blasting is, people who are living in the area experience both noise and vibrations. Some become scared, thinking that an eart

53、hquake is happening. Inblasting areas, the intensity of vibrations is measured. In order to keep them within accepted limits, delayed capsules are used.當(dāng)需要通過堅(jiān)硬巖石時(shí)，鉆孔爆破是一種常用工法。這種情況下，無論如何控制爆破，這一區(qū)域的居民都要忍受噪音和震動，有些人甚至感到害怕，認(rèn)為發(fā)生了地震。在爆破區(qū)內(nèi)，震動強(qiáng)度必須監(jiān)測，為了把震動強(qiáng)度控制在可以接受的范圍內(nèi)，常采用延遲爆破。In order to minimize vibration an

54、d noise caused by machines and to reduce the effects of blasting, working areas are surrounded by fences. Supercial blasting shaft rims are covered with a large canvas and fences are covered with wet broadcloths. However, these precautions can only reduce negative effects; they cannot totally elimin

55、ate them.為了最大程度的降低機(jī)械設(shè)備引起的震動和噪音從而降低爆破的影響，工作區(qū)會用圍欄隔離起來。淺層爆破時(shí)，鉆孔周邊會用一塊大的帆布包起來，圍欄會用濕布填充。無論如何，這些防范措施只能減少不良影響，并不能完全消除。Fig. 10 A shaft that is 56 m away from an apartment圖10 距離居民樓5-6米遠(yuǎn)的豎井The formation of dust and mudDepending on the season, both dust and mud disturb the environment. During removal of excava

56、ted material, especially muddy material, trucks may pollute the environment despite all precautions taken. Mud that forms around the excavation area may slide down the slope and cover the ground (Fig. 11). In this case although roads are frequently cleaned, the environment is still disturbed.Trucks,

57、 which travel from dumping areas to areas that are muddy cannot enter trafc until their wheels and bodies are washed. However, this cannot prevent the truck wheel from dropping mud on the roads while on move.灰塵和泥漿的形成因季節(jié)不同，灰塵和泥漿同樣破壞環(huán)境。在運(yùn)輸開挖廢料特別是泥漿時(shí)，盡管采取了防范措施，卡車還是免不了要污染環(huán)境。施工區(qū)內(nèi)產(chǎn)生的泥漿會從斜坡上滑落并覆蓋地面（見圖11）。這

58、樣，即使道路頻繁打掃，環(huán)境仍然會有所破壞。從垃圾傾倒區(qū)開出的卡車在車輪和車身沖洗干凈之前，因?yàn)榉浅Ｄ酀舳粶?zhǔn)開進(jìn)大道，盡管如此，也無法完全避免在卡車行進(jìn)過程中有泥漿從車輪里掉出。Fig. 11 Mud that has spread over Eyup Aksoy Street during the KadikoyKartal Metroexcavation圖11 KadikoyKartal地鐵線路施工期間被泥漿覆蓋的Eyup Aksoy大道Interrupted utilitiesInterrupted utilities are also one of the most crucial problems facing citizens duringexcavation projects due to the fact that telephone, natural gas, electricity, water, and infrastructure lines must be cut off and moved to other areas (Fig. 12).During the transfer of these lines, services may