1、一、緒論語言學的定義語言學的研究范疇幾對基本概念語言的定義語言的甄別特征What is linguistics? 什么是語言學？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 語言學是對語言科學地進行研究的學科。語言學所要研究的不是某一種特定的語言，而是人類所有語言的特性。The scope of linguistics 語言學研究的范疇Phonetics語音學Phonol

2、ogy音系學Morphology形態學Syntax句法學Semantics語義學Pragmatics語用學Sociolinguistics社會語言學Psycholinguistics心理語言學Applied linguistics應用語言學Prescriptive vs. descriptive 規定性與描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct&qu

3、ot; behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共時性與歷史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic

4、studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:（1） speech prec

5、edes writing in terms of evolution（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 語言與言語Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community

6、Parole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力與運用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是語言？Language is a sy

7、stem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 語言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of la

8、nguage. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 語言的甄別特征American linguist Cha

9、rles Hockett specified 12 design features:1） arbitrariness 武斷性2） productivity 創造性3） duality 二重性4） displacement移位性5） cultural transmission 文化傳遞性二、音系學語言的聲音媒介什么是語音學發音器官音標寬式和嚴式標音法英語語音的分類音系學和語音學語音、音位、音位變體音位對立、互補分部、最小對立幾條音系規則超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sou

10、nds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這些數目有限的一組語音構成了語言的聲音媒介。Phonetics語音學: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's

11、 language.Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 發音語音學（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學and acoustic phonetics 聲學語音學Organs of speech 發音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔the throatThe or

12、al cavity口腔the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔the noseVibration of the vocal cords （聲帶） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 濁音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 輔音。單詞補充：01） velum: The soft palate. 軟腭02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspen

13、ded from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，懸雍垂懸垂在軟腭中央的小的圓錐狀肉塊03） larynx: n. 喉04） vocal cord: 聲帶05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔軟的組織層，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區域、結構或動植物器官06） the soft palate:

14、軟腭07） the hard palate: 硬腭08） the teeth ridge: 齒齦09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽顎骨處的牙床10） the teeth: 牙齒11） the lips: 上下唇12） blade of tongue: 舌面13） back of tongue: 舌根14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft

15、 palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地發音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖18） the upper front teeth: 上齒19） the roof of the mouth: 上顎20） the lower lip: 下唇音標寬式和嚴式標音法International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（單元音&雙元音）The

16、 constants 輔音Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）用一個符號來表示一個語音的標音方式叫做寬式標音法，這種音標法常見于詞典和教科書。Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.但實際上， 同一語音在不通的語音環境中的發音不盡相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音發音就不一樣。在寬式標音的基礎上， 再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環境下不同發音的標音

17、法叫做窄式標音法。Classification of English speech sounds英語語音的分類The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstr

18、ucted in one way or another.Classification of English constants英語輔音分類此主題相關圖片如下：Classification of English vowels:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低:the openness of the mouth,口的張開程度:the shape of the lips園唇與否:length of the vowels元音的長度此主題相關圖片如下：Phonology 音系學Phonology and phonetics音系學和語音學Phoneti

19、cs is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.語音學研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進行描述和分類。Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to

20、convey meaning in linguistic communication.音系學研究的重點是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達意義作用。Phone，phoneme and allophone語音，音位，音位變體Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.語音是語音學研究的單位， 是一個個具體的聲音。Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.音位是音系學研究

21、的單位，是抽象的概念， 每一個音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區別意義的作用。The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位變體是一個音位在特定的語音環境力的具體體現， 同一音位在不同語音環境里體現為不同的變體，也就是語音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位對立，互補分布，最小對立對rope and

22、 robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.可以出現在不同語音組合中的同一為止， 產生意義差別。/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every

23、 way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. pen and ben最小對立對指出現在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。Some rules in phonology幾條音系規則Sequential rules 序列規則 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possibl

24、e.Assimilation rules 同化規則Deletion rule 省略規則Sign, design, there is no g soundSignature, designation the g is pronounced.Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constant.Suprasegmental features stress, tone, intonation超切分特征重音， 聲調，語調the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment

25、s are called suprasegmental features;超切分特征指切分即單音層面以上的音系特征。三、 MORPHOLOGY 形態學 請結合詞匯學中的構詞法進行學習。語素：語言最小的意義單位語素的類型復合詞的類型復合詞的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morpholo

26、gy and lexical or derivational morphology.形態學研究單詞的內部結構以及構詞規則， 有屈折形態學和詞匯形態學兩大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.語素：語言最小的意義單位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）自由語素可以作為單詞獨立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itsel

27、f.粘著語素必須和其他語素結合成單詞Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（詞綴）1）Inflectional affixes （屈折詞綴）（inflectional morphemes）:affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional2）Derivational affixes（派生詞綴） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffixAn a

28、djective suffix（形容詞后綴） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.free=free root（自由詞根）Morpheme（詞素）Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（詞根和詞干）1） Root 2） StemThe differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form

29、 of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Individualistic UndesirablesIndividualist （stem） undesirable （s

30、tem）Individual （stem） desirable （stem）dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）divide（root, stem）Affixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.Prefixation前綴：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-

31、,dis,a- etc.2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.3）'表示貶義'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5）'表示方向、態度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7）'表示時間、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8）'表示數量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,t