CHAPTER9INTELLECTUALPROPERTY9-1CHAPTER9

INTELLECTUALPROPERTYTopicsforthischapter:TheCreationofIntellectualPropertyRightsInternationalIntellectualPropertyOrganizationsIntellectualPropertyTreatiesInternationalTransferofIntellectualPropertyLicensingRegulationsCompulsoryLicenses9-2CreationofIntellectual

PropertyRightsIntellectualpropertyisusefulartisticandindustrialinformationandknowledge.Ithastwoprinciplebranches:Artisticproperty–artistic,literary,andmusicalworks.Industrialproperty–inventionsandtrademarks.Inventionsincludebothusefulproductsandusefulmanufacturingprocesses.Trademarksincludetradenames,servicemarks,collectivemarks,andcertificationmarks.9-3CreationofIntellectual

PropertyRights—CopyrightsAcopyrightisastatutoryrightthatgivestheauthorofanartisticwork,foralimitedperiod,theexclusiveprivilegeofmakingcopiesoftheworkandpublishingandsellingthecopies.Thecopyrightholderhaspecuniaryrightsandcertainmoralrightstothework.Therightsbelongtotheauthorofanyworkthatisfixedinatangiblemediumforthepurposeofcommunication,suchasliterary,dramatic,musical,orartisticworks;soundrecordings;film,radio,andtelevisionbroadcasts;andcertaincomputerprograms.9-4Copyrights—

PecuniaryRightsPecuniary

rights

–Therightofanauthortoexploitacopyrightedworkforeconomicgain.Thetwokindsofpecuniaryrightsare:Therightofreproduction,including:RightofreproductionRightofdistributionRightofexhibitionTherightofpublicperformance,including:RightofrecitationorperformanceRightofbroadcastingRighttocommunicatebysoundorvisuallyRightofconnectingbroadcasttransmissions

9-5PecuniaryRightsTherightofreproductiongivestheauthortheexclusiverighttomakecopiesofacopyrightedwork.Includesreproductioninanyform.Therightofdistributiongivestheauthortherighttoplaceacopyofacopyrightedworkintocirculationforthefirsttime.Doctrineofexhaustion–Onceacopyrightedworkisincirculation,authorhasnorightofdistribution.Authorsmayprohibitrentalofwork.9-6RightofPerformanceTherightofperformanceistherightoftheauthortocommunicateacopyrightedworktothepublic.Thisrightappliesonlytopublicperformances,suchasshowingmovieonacollegecampusandchargingadmission.Aprivateperformancewouldbeviewingthesamemovieathomewithfriends.

9-7Case9-1

PerformingRightSoc.,Ltd.v.HickeyPlaintiffssoughtinjunctiontokeepdefendantfromperformingmusicalworkswithoutconsent.DefendantplayedrecordsathisbarbequerestaurantinZambiawhileholdingdances.Held:Playingtherecordswasaperformancethatinfringedcopyright.Nodamagesawardedforunintentionalinfringement,butdefendantliablefortheprofitshemade.9-8MoralRightsRightofanauthortoprohibitothersfromtamperingwithacopyrightedwork.Theserightsareindependentoftheauthor’specuniaryrights.Moralrightsconsistofrightto:objecttodistortion,mutilation,ormodification,berecognizedastheauthor,controlpublicaccesstothework.Evenifaworkofartiscommissionedbyapartywhoacquiresthecopyright,theauthororartistmayretaintherighttopreventothersfromtamperingwiththework.

Photo:MuraldepictingIrapuatohistorybySalvadorAlmaraz,releasedintothepublicdomain.9-9Case9-2:AmarNathSehgalv.UnionofIndiaDoestheartistretainmoralrightstomuralcommissionedbytheIndiangovernment?Plaintiffassignedhiscopyrighttothedefendant.Muralwasrippedfromwallandputinstorage.Courtrecognizedthatthereshouldbeprotectionforthesoulandessenceofartisticexpressionasmuchasthephysicaltangiblework.

9-10WorksCoveredCopyrightprotectionisgiventoawork:anartistic,literary,orscientificcreation.Examplesofworkscoveredbycopyrightlaws:LiteraryworksMusicalworks,includingaccompanyingwordsDramaticworks,includingaccompanyingmusicPantomimesandchoreographicworksPictorial,graphic,andsculpturalworksMotionpicturesandaudiovisualworksSoundrecordings9-11WorksSubjectToCopyrightTobecoveredbycopyright,aworkmustbeoriginal.Theauthormustinvestcreativeeffortinrawmaterialsthatgivethemanewqualityorcharacter.Theworkmustbefixedinatangiblemedium:StorywrittenonpaperPicturepaintedonacanvasStatuesculptedfrommarbleMusicrecordedonacompactdisc9-12NeighboringRightsCreatedmostlyfortechnologicalworksthatfalloutsideofexistingdefinitionsofcopyright.Insteadofamendingcopyrightlawslikemostdevelopedcountries,somecountriescreatednewlawswithrightssimilartocopyrights.Theselawsareoftencalledneighboringrights.Twoexampleswerecreatedin1989bytreaty:TreatyontheInternationalRegistrationofAudiovisualWorksTreatyonIntellectualPropertyinRespectofIntegratedCircuits

9-13FormalitiesTheBerneConventionestablishedthatthetitlegrantedbycopyrightlawsissubjecttonoformalities.TheUSformerlyrequiredtheworktoincludeacopyrightnoticeanddepositofcertainworkswiththeCopyrightOfficeoftheU.S.LibraryofCongress.WhentheUSbecameamemberoftheBerneConvention,therequirementofnoformalitiesbecametherulethroughouttheworld.9-14ScopeandDuration

ofCopyrightAcopyrightappliesonlywithintheterritoryofthestategrantingit.Thedurationofacopyrightusuallylasts50yearsfollowingtheauthor’sdeath.TheWTOTRIPSAgreementfollowsthisprecedent.TheUSandmanynationshaveextendedthedurationto70yearsfollowingtheauthor’sdeath.TheWIPOisaUNagencythatdevelopsIPlawsandstandardsanddeliversservicesinIPprotectionsystems.Seetheirwebsiteat:/portal/index.html.en9-15Exceptionsto

CopyrightProtectionTherearemanyusesofcopyrightedmaterialthatdonotconstituteaninfringement.Someoftheseincludeuse:InacourtoradministrativeproceedingForinstructionalpurposesinschoolsForprivatepurposesBriefquotationinscholarlyworksForquotationofnewsworthyspeechesorpoliticalcommentaries9-16PatentsApatentisastatutoryrightthatgivesaninventor,foralimitedperiod,theexclusiverighttouseorsellapatentedproductortouseapatentedmethodorprocess.Tworeasonsforgrantingpatents:Patentsareaconfirmationofthepropertyrightsoftheinventor.Apatentisagrantofaspecialmonopolytoencourageinventionandindustrialdevelopment.9-17PatentsandOther

Inventor’sGrantsMostcountriesgrantthreebasickindsofpatents:Designpatents–grantedtoprotectnewandoriginaldesignsofanarticleofmanufacture.Plant

patents–grantedforthecreationordiscoveryofanewanddistinctvarietyofaplant.Utilitypatents–grantedfortheinventionofanewandusefulprocess,machine,articleofmanufacture,orcompositionofmatter.Variationsincludeconfirmationpatents,patentsofaddition,andprecautionarypatents.Pettypatentsaregrantedforminorinventions.9-18InventionsThatQualify

forPatentProtectionPatentsmaybeobtainedforanyinvention,whetheraproductorprocess,aslongastheyare“new,involveaninventivestep,andarecapableofindustrialapplication.”Inventionisnewifnootherinventorhasobtainedapatentforthesameinvention.Itinvolvesaninventivestepifthe“subjectmatter”oftheinventionwasnot“obviousatthetimetheinventionwasmadetoapersonhavingordinaryskillinthearttowhichthesubjectmatterpertains.”Itiscapableofindustrialapplicationiftheproductorprocessisonethatcanbeusedinordinarycommerce.

9-19Case9-3:MonsantoCo.v.

CoramandalIndagProducts,(P)Ltd.MonsantobroughtsuitinIndiaforpatentinfringementagainstanIndiancompanythatmanufacturedanherbicideproductthatkilledweedsgrowinginricefields.Theactiveingredientintheherbicideanditscompositionwerewell-knownbeforethepatentwasgrantedandtheemulsificationnecessarytoapplytheproductwasalsoacommonpractice.Courtrevokedthepatentsinceneithertheproductortheprocesswerenew,nordidtheyinvolveanyinventivestepsnotalreadyknown.9-20ProceduresForReviewingPatentApplications9-21InventionsExcluded

fromPatentProtectionApatentmaybedeniedwhentheinventionviolatesstandardsofmoralityorhasnocommercialapplication.Patentsmaybedeniedwhentherequirementsofpatentabilityarenotmet.Mayalsobedeniedtoinventionsthatviolatebasicsocialpolicy(i.e.,suicidemachine).TRIPSallowsWTOmembertodenypatenttoprotectpublicorderormoralitysolongasthestateforbidscommercialexploitationoftheinvention.9-22Durationand

ScopeofPatentsUndertheTRIPSAgreement,theminimumtermforprotectionofpatentshasbeensetat20yearsforWTOmembers.Apatentisvalidonlywithinthestategrantingit.Statescannotpreventtheuseofpatentedtechnologyoutsidetheirterritory.Structuraldiagramofapharmaceutical.Longerprotectiontimeforpatentsaidsdrugcompanies.Copyright(C)2000,2001,2002FreeSoftwareFoundation,Inc.51FranklinSt,FifthFloor,Boston,MA02110-1301USAEveryoneispermittedtocopyanddistributeverbatimcopiesofthislicensedocument,butchangingitisnotallowed.

9-23TrademarksMerchantsusefivemarkstoidentifythemselvesandtheirproducts:Trademarks–amarkorsymbolusedtoidentifygoodsofaparticularmanufacturerormerchant.Tradename–amarkorsymbolusedtoidentifyamanufacturerormerchant.Servicemarks–amarkorsymbolusedtoidentifyapersonwhoprovidesservices.Collectivemark–amarkorsymbolusedbyagrouptoidentifyitselftoitsmembers.Certificationmark–amarkorsymbolusedbyalicenseeorfranchiseetoindicatethataparticularproductmeetscertainstandards.9-24AcquiringTrademarksTrademarksareacquiredintwoways:byuseandbyregistration.Famoustrademarksmaynothavetoberegisteredtobeprotected.McDonald’sCorp.hassuccessfullychallengedinfringementsofitstrademarkinseveralcountrieswhereitstrademarkwasneverregistered.Mostcountriesallowalocaluserofamarktoobjecttoitsregistrationbyanotherindividualevenifthemarkisnotfamous.9-25RegistrationRegistrationofatrademarkisdonetogivenoticetootherpotentialuser’sofone’sclaiminamark.Atrademarkofficewillexaminetheapplicationtoseethatthemarkissuitableforregistrationandhasnotbeenpreviouslyregistered.Inordertoberegistered,themarkmust(1)notinfringeonanothermarkand(2)bedistinctive.Distinctivenessmeanspossessingauniquedesignthatdistinguishesaproductfromothersimilarproducts.9-26Case9-4

ExperienceHendrixv.HammertonPlaintiffisacompanyformedbythefamilyofJimiHendrixandownstherightstohismusic,name,image,andrecordings.Theplaintiffallegedthatthedefendant’sdomainnameofwasconfusinglysimilartotheirnameof;thatthedefendanthadnorightsorlegitimateinterestinrespecttothedomainname;andthedomainnameofthedomainnameholderhasbeenregisteredandwasbeingusedinbadfaith.

9-27Case9-4(continued)

ExperienceHendrixv.HammertonHeld:TheWIPOpanelistdecided:Hammertonregisteredthedomainnamemerelytomakeaprofit.ThedomainnamewouldlikelyconfusethepublicastotheidentityoftherealJimiHendrixFanClub.Hammertonhadnolegitimaterightstothename.Hisactionswereinbadfaith.ThedomainnamewasorderedtransferredtotheExperienceHendrix,L.L.C.9-28GroundsforRefusing

RegistrationofaTrademarkExamplesofreasonstodenyregistration:Doesnotfunctionasatrademarktoidentifythegoodsorservices(notdistinctive);Isimmoral,deceptive,orscandalous;Maydisparageorfalselysuggestaconnectionwithpersons,institutions,beliefs,ornationalsymbols,orbringthemintocontemptordispute;Isthename,portrait,orsignatureofaparticularlivingindividual;Resemblesamarkalreadyregistered;Ismisdescriptiveofthegoods;Isprimarilygeographicallydescriptive.9-29Registration

ReviewandTermOnceatrademarkisdeemedsuitableforregistration,itispublishedintheTrademarkOffice’sofficialgazette.Opponentsthenhaveaperiodoftime(30-90days)toopposetheregistration.TRIPSrequiresWTOmemberstoprotecttrademarksforatermofatleastsevenyears.Italsoprovidesthattrademarksaretobeindefinitelyrenewable.TrademarkregistrationforConcordiaCollegeintheRep.ofLiberiafor15years.9-30UsageRequirementManycountriesrequirethetrademarkholdertopresentproof,upontherenewalofregistration,thatthemarkwasactuallyusedduringthepriorterm.Somerequireinterimproof:Mexicoattheendofthethirdyear;USattheendofthesixthyear.UnderTRIPS,theremusthavebeenanonuseofthreeyearsbeforethetrademarkcanbechallenged.Somestatesrequirechallengertoshowintentionalabandonmentbytheowner.9-31Know-HowKnow-howispracticalexpertiseacquiredfromstudy,training,andexperience.Thoughnotnormallyprotectedbystatute,know-how,ortradesecrets,areoftenprotectedbycontract,tort,andotherareasoflaw.TRIPSrequiresWTOmemberstoprotectwhatitcalls“undisclosedinformation.”Tobeprotected,theinformationmustbesecret,havecommercialvaluebecauseitissecret,havebeenreasonablyprotectedfromdisclosure.

9-32WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(WIPO)Createdin1967withtheadoptionoftheStockholmConvention.ResponsibleforadministeringtheParisandBerneConventionsandpromotingintellectualpropertyrights.GoverningbodyisGeneralAssembly,madeupofrepresentativesof184partiestoStockholmConvention.IsaspecializedagencyoftheUN.SponsorsconferencesfordevelopmentofnewIPrightsagreements.Facilitatesthetransferoftechnologyamongdevelopingcountriesandprovidesarbitration.

9-33CouncilforTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRightsOrganoftheWTOresponsiblefortheadministeringtheTRIPSAgreement.ResponsibleformonitoringcomplianceofTRIPSbymembersandhelpingmembersconsultwitheachotheronintellectualpropertyrights.Assistsmembersinsettlingdisputes.ConsultswiththeWIPO.9-34IntellectualPropertyTreaties:

TRIPSMultilateraltreatiesregulatemostmattersrelatingtointellectualpropertyrights.TRIPSAgreementisanannextotheagreementestablishingtheWTO.AllWTOmembersareautomaticallymembersoftheTRIPSAgreement.PurposeofTRIPSistocreateamultilateralandcomprehensivesetofrightsandobligationsgoverningtheinternationaltradeinintellectualproperty.9-35TRIPSProtectionsEstablishescommonminimumofprotectionforintellectualpropertyrightswithinWTOstates:RequiresWTOmemberstoobserveprovisionsofthemostimportantmultilateralIPtreaties.Createsobligationstofillsingapsleftbyotherconventions.EstablishescriteriaforeffectiveandappropriateenforcementofIPrightsandforthepreventionandsettlementofdisputes.Createstransitionalarrangementsfordevelopingcountriestogivethemtimetocomply.ExtendsthebasicprinciplesofGATTtothefieldofinternationalIPrights.8-36ArtisticPropertyAgreements:

BerneConventionBerneConventionrequiresmemberstatestoestablishcommonminimumrulestoprotectthepecuniaryandmoralrightsofauthorswithoutrequiringcompliancewithparticularformalities.Fourprinciplesunderliemembers’obligations:NationaltreatmentNonconditionalprotectionProtectionindependentofprotectioninthecountryoforiginCommonrulesprinciple9-37ArtisticPropertyAgreements:

RomeConventionTheInternationalConventionfortheProtectionofPerformers,ProducersofPhonograms,andBroadcastingOrganizations(RomeConvention)prohibitstheunauthorizedrecordingofliveperformances,theunauthorizedreproductionofrecordings,andtheunauthorizedrecordingorrebroadcastingofbroadcasts.Broadcastermakingapubliccommunicationofanauthorizedphonogrammustpaytheproducerorartistanequitablepayment.8-38ArtisticPropertyAgreements

ThePhonogramPiracyConventionrequiresmemberstatestoprotectproducersofphonogramsfromtheunauthorizedreproductionoftheirworksforaperiodofnotlessthan20years.TheSatelliteTransmissionConventionrequiresmemberstatestopreventtheunauthorizedtransmissionofelectroniccommunicationsbysatellitefromtheirterritory.TheWIPOCopyrightTreatyrequiresmemberstatestoextendtheprovisionsoftheBerneConventiontocomputerprogramsanddatabases.

9-39IndustrialPropertyAgreements:

ParisConventionTheInternationalConventionfortheProtectionofIndustrialProperty(ParisConvention)requiresmemberstatestoprovidenationaltreatment,rightofpriority,andcommonminimumrulestoprotectownersofindustrialpropertyrights.Theruleofprioritygivesanapplicantforapatentwhohasfiledforprotectioninonemembercountryagraceperiodof12monthsinwhichtofileinanothermemberstate.9-40IndustrialPropertyAgreementsTheWashingtonTreatyrequiresmemberstoprovidenationaltreatmentandcommonminimumrulestoprotectownersofintegratedcircuits.ThePatentCooperationTreatyestablishesaninternationalmechanismthatallowsinventorstomakeasingleapplicationforpatentprotectionthatisequivalenttomakingafilinginallstates.TheMadridAgreementfortheRepressionofFalseorDeceptiveIndicationsofSourcesofGoodsrequiresmemberstatestodenyimportationtogoodsbearingfalseormisleadingindicationsastotheirsource.9-41TheInternationalTransferofIntellectualProperty

FivewaysinwhichIPrightsaretransferred:Ownermayworkthepropertyrightsabroad,Ownermaytransferorassignrightstoanother,Ownermaylicenseanothertoworkthem,Ownermayestablishafranchise,orAgovernmentmaygrantacompulsorylicensesothatathirdpartymayexploitthem.9-42LicenseandFranchiseAlicenseistheauthoritygrantedbytheownerofanintellectualpropertytoanotherallowingthelattertherighttouseitinsomelimitedway.Afranchiseisaspeciallicensethatrequiresthefranchiseetoworkthelicensedpropertyunderthesupervisionandcontrolofthefranchisor.Threetypesoffranchisesthathavedevelopedovertimearethedealership,thechain-stylebusiness,andthemanufacturingorprocessingplant.9-43TypesofFranchisesDistributorship–manufacturerlicensesdealertosellitsproducts.Chain-stylebusiness–franchiseeoperatesunderthefranchisor’stradenameandisidentifiedaspartofthefranchisor’sbusiness.Manufacturingorprocessingplant–afranchiseinwhichthefranchiseesellsproductsitmanufacturesfromaformulaorfromingredientsprovidedbythefranchisor.9-44LicensingRegulationsPatents,trademarks,andcopyrightscreatemonopoliesthatruncontrarytounfaircompetitionlaws.Therightsofthegrantholdersarestrictlyconstruedandlimitedtothenarrowconfinesofthegrant.Anyattempttogobeyondthescopeofthegrantiseitherineffectiveorillegal.TRIPSrecognizestherightsofstatestolimitIPrightsandplaceconditionsuponthegrants.Transfer-of-technologycodesandanti-monopolystatutes(ShermanAntitrustAct)protectthepublicagainsttheadverseeffectsofIPrights.9-45TerritorialRestrictionsTherightsgrantedunderapatent,trademark,orcopyrightlicensemayberestrictedtoaterritory.However,onceagoodmadeorsoldunderlicenseisincirculation,thelicensorhasnofurtherrighttocontrolitsdistribution.Thisistheexhaustionofrightsdoctrine.WhentheseparateIPlawsofEUmemberstatescomeintoconflictwiththegoalofestablishingthefreemovementofgoods,theEUlawwillgovern.ThemonopolycreatedbyIPrightsextendsonlytotherighttomanufacturetheprotectedproductandputitintocirculationforthefirsttime.Athirdpartymaythenselltheproductinothermarkets.

9-46Case9-5:ConstenandGrundigv.CommissionEuropeanCommunityAgreementbetweenGermanmanufacturer(Grundig)andFrenchretailerhadrestrictionsonimportingandsellingGrundigproducts.ThecourtweighedthecontractprovisionsagainsttheEUprincipleoffreemovementofgoodsandfoundthattherestrictionsviolatedtheEUtreaty.TreatyofRomestatedthatanyagreementthatresultedinthe“prevention,restriction,ordistortionofcompetitionwithinthecommonmarket”wasillegal.Contractswerefoundillegal.

9-47IPandTradeRestrictionsTheEuropeanCourtofJusticecreatedthecommonorigindoctrinetopromotethefreemovementofgoodsattheexpenseoftrademarkowners.ThisprovidesthatownersofthesameIPrightwhoacquireditfromacommonpredecessorcannotrestricteachotherfromusingtheright.If,however,theprotectedproductsaremanufacturedoutsidetheEU,theymaynotbeimportedintotheEUwithouttheexpressconsentoftheEUintellectualpropertyowner.U.S.courtshavedealtwithparallelimportsofprotectedproducts.Aproblemknownasgraymarketing.

9-48ExportRestrictionsMostexportrestrictionsareprohibited.SomecountriesallowthemwherethelicensorownIPrightsandthelocallawsallowthelicensortorestrictforeignimports.Inothercountries,restrictswillbeallowedifthelimitationappliestoaterritorywherethelicensorismanufacturingordistributingtherestrictedgoodsandthelicensorhasgrantedanexclusivelicensetoathirdpartytomanufactureordistributethegoods.8-49ExportRestrictionsintheUSExportrestrictionagreementsbetweencompetitors,knownashorizontalcompetitionagreements,areperseviolationoftheShermanAntitrustAct.Agreementsbetweenasellerandabuyer,knownasverticalcompetitionagreements,arenotbadperseandwillbetestedbytheruleofreason.

9-50CartelsAcartelisacombinationofindependentbusinessfirmsorganizedtoregulatetheproduction,pricing,andmarketingofgoodsbyitsmembers.Typesofcartelsinclude:Cross-licensingagreement–anagreementtoexchangelicenses.Patentpool–anagreementtocharepatentsandothertechnology.Multiplelicensingagreement–acontractforthelicensingofindustrialpropertyrightstotwoormorelicensees.

9-51CartelsIntheUS,cross-licensingandpatentpoolingarenotunlawfulunlesstheyareusedto:DivideupterritoriesamongcompetitorsExcludeothersfromcompetingRestraintradeThebottleneckprinciplemayrequiretheparticipantsinanindustry-widepatentpooltograntreasonableaccesstothepooltoanyfirmwishingtocompetesothatnofirmwillbedisadvantaged.9-52ExclusiveLicensesSeveralcountriesallowtheownerofapatent,trademark,orcopyrighttogranteitheranexclusiveoranonexclusivelicense.Alicensemayconfer:Solerights–totheexclusionofallothers,includingthelicensorExclusiverights–preventingeveryoneexceptthelicensorfromcompetingNonexclusiverights–whichallowthelicensortograntotherlicenses9-53Case9-6

Ransome-Kutiv.Phonogram,Ltd.Issue:WhetherthelicensegrantedtoaNigeriancompanytoreproducetheplaintiff’scopyrightedmusicalworkthroughoutAfricaforthreeyearsalsogavethelicenseetherighttosubcontracttherightstoproducerecordsinGhanatoanotherfirm.Held:Sincethecontractdefinedthelicenseinthiscasetobeonethatextendedto“successorsandassigns,”reassignmentoftherighttoproducerecordstoanothercompanywasallowed.Thiscasepointsouttheimportanceofdefiningimportanttermscarefullyinacontract.9-54SalesandDistributionArrangementsSalesordistributionarrangementslimitalicensee’sfreedomtoorganizeitsdistributionsystemindependentlyofthelicensor.Threeapproachesbydifferentcountries:Developingcountries(e.g.,Brazil)prohibitsanyinterferencebythelicensor.Developing/developedcountries(e.g.,Japan,Mexico)prohibitonlythoseprovisionsthatgivethelicensorexclusivedistributionrights.Generallydevelopedcountries(e.g.,Germany,US)onlyprohibitthoseexclusivesalesarrangementsthattendtomonopolizemarkets.9-55Price-Fixingand

NoncompetitionClausesPrice-fixingclauserequiresalicenseetosellproductsatapricespecifiedbythelicensor.Itmayspecifyeithermaximumorminimumprices.Mostcountriesp