1LessonOne:LegalSystem法律制度Background背景自從哥倫布(ChristopherColumbus)于1492年航行至美洲之后，大批歐洲人便開始擁向這片"新大陸"。不過，人們通常把第一批英國定居者(thefirstEnglishsettlers)于1607年到達弗吉尼亞(Virginia)的詹姆斯頓(Jamestown)視為美國法律制度歷史的起點。美國法制史可以大體上分為兩個時期，即英屬殖民地時期(thePeriodoftheEnglishColonies)和美利堅合眾國時期(thePeriodoftheUnitedStates)。雖然美國的法律制度是在英國法律傳統的根底上形成和開展起來的，但是在近四百年的歷史進程中，美國的法律制度也形成了一些不同于英國法律制度的特點，如公訴制度(publicprosecution)等。美國屬于普通法系(CommonLawLegalSystem)國家，其法律制度有兩個根本特點：其一是以分散制(decentralization)為原那么；其二是以判例法(caselaw)為主體。美國除聯邦政府外，還有州政府、縣政府、市政府、鎮政府等等，而且這些政府都是相互獨立的，各自在其管轄范圍內享有一定的立法權和執法權。因此，有人說美國是"一個有許多政府的國家"(acountryofmanygovernments)；而美國的法律體系那么是一個"零散的無系統"(fragmentalnosystem)。誠然，美國現在也有很多成文法(writtenlaw)或制定法(statutorylaw)，但是其法律制度仍是以判例法為主體的。換言之，"遵從前例"(staredecisis)仍然是美國司法活動中最重要的原那么之一。以上兩點對于理解美國的法律制度具有重要意義。Text課文啄Pa支rt泡O隔ne顏Th稈e誦Un翻it爬ed出S司ta行te診s旬is逼a秘t維on辦ce完a攜v旦er揭y請ne嚼w很na首ti勉on量a副nd跟a打v坡er鬧y極ol添d勁na趨ti特on矩.薄It煙i瓶s掃a脖ne刷w餅na倆ti賤on耕c獲om績pa換re懼d策wi致th欄m嬸an生y奮ot查he棗r陰co疼un待tr愉ie洗s,域a掌nd悔i肯t導is聞n席ew片,冤to能o,蘆i刷n兄th騙e鞠se魂ns警e板th命at塞i蒙t電is不c券on悟st躺an有tl芒y廣be擔in拍g旺re回ne勝we購d咱by松t怠he歌a師dd品it乘io意n息o蒸f襯ne勻w蝦el橋em果en亮ts稻o鵲f贏po仇pu兇la飲ti壤on縫a召nd讀o矛f酒ne艷w即St們at窩es奪.抬Bu載t巡in狡o診th連er痰s灘en樸se際s廢it蠶i業s景ol縣d.讀I鋸t俯is挑t覆he畜o械ld鳳es竊t甘of走t命he偵"蝕ne專w"籮n何at擦io樸ns言--痛th鄉e鬧fi獲rs際t燃on培e粗to坡b惱e邀ma擇de兇o矩ut行o逗f卻an非O饞ld皂W峰or郊ld劫c截ol遣on穿y.暗I栗t零ha臟s熔th冠e法ol謙de廊st曾w嘗ri疏tt暑en焦c縫on層st甚it博ut糕io斥n,鍬t員he汁o解ld盈es孫t炸co派nt扣in駱uo魂us睡f姑ed犯er遺al轎s什ys散te紗m,囑a肅nd薯t粘he岔o罵ld森es神t味pr跌ac腳ti鎮ce業o棍f妖se唐lf娛并go碧ve沾rn呀me追nt蠻o傲f冒an市y醉na脂ti事on旨.籍On筑e衡of稈t括he的m福os林t帽in榴te嘩re陶st贏in剪g仰fe線at奏ur臥es奸o盯f勞Am象er坊ic桂a蜘行s寄yo犁ut睜h洞is犯t義ha盆t餡th薦e栽wh敘ol妻e岔of圖i腔ts運h址is陽to碧ry剪b險el蓮on惕gs徹i決n死th結e悅pe泛ri挪od斧s咳in符ce鏟t清he猜i語nv也en召ti忽on學o憲f者th摔e梳pr債in蝦ti婚ng溪p亮re沖ss喚.正Th離e置wh竿ol拴e串of晝i壇ts法h蜻is條to煮ry響i戲s,僵t梁he地re悉fo臉re狐,喝re鏡co斧rd織ed軋:迅in餃de館ed輪,膝it惡i給s投sa概fe掏t理o咸sa碗y胡t狂ha沿t蔽no垂o喊th蹄er底m必aj撫or轉n蠻at鴿io哈n歸ha底s皆so慣c抽om畫pr羅eh煌en姿si墨ve場a擱r偷ec困or兆d唇of澤i紙ts逝h緩is形to銷ry廈a鄰s脫ha虛s裁th掛e斥Un貝it萌ed映S望ta改te智s,脅f南or犯e翼ve內nt第s容su帥ch孫a羊s印th儉os婆e灣th媽at呀a氣re張l厘os棍t傻in棕t蠟he編l紙eg貨en葉da驕ry曬p遷as納t雷of均I爆ta下ly悲o悄r叔Fr路an驢ce蹦o械r捐En論gl壺an門d嗎ar跡e海pa槳rt粥o棵f鉗th姿e鋪pr飾in噸te敢d棗re境co匹rd浮o援f揭th佩e陵Un怨it數ed賢S擺ta錯te籌s.另A節nd附t萍he劉A眾me賊ri浩ca沉n永re壩co侍rd舞i教s宮no湊t腿on明ly料c惱om束pr篇eh采en詞si朋ve慣;呢it羊i袍s掛im頌me霧ns上e.搜I點t嗎em崗br桶ac懼es醬n初ot恐o跨nl治y飄th伐e帝re竟co塘rd交o林f燃th盒e舅co浸lo姻ni均al怠e魚ra貌a幻nd滾o蘇f向th施e殺Na洪ti挖on錄s盲in摧ce芽1述77委6,降b腿ut度o蚊f攜th葬e描pr屈es叫en塑t恩fi歲ft午y渾St孝at腥es誘a自s蠅we付ll身,假an點d變th尸e銹in熔tr歡ic傷at譜e北ne漆tw壓or續k屈of照r墊el越at假io玩ns飛hi幸ps徒b聾et綁we渾en贈S背ta遞te桂s事an穗d自Na省ti壓on騙.趁Th躺us乖,恐to儀t爽ak惕e累a柴ve華ry探e廣le萬me霧nt顯ar像y網ex失am結pl廟e,埋t兩he明r受ep貧or歷ts濱o摧f澇th陶e務Un儲it攪ed駕S漸ta酸te潤s盟Su券pr挨em銜e異Co精ur模t需fi呼ll倆s除om重e蹦35宴0皂vo懷lu殿me應s,獄a鍵nd云t繭he香r凍ep哄or群ts洞o帥f鉆so例me侵S肅ta遵te錫s策ar虎e緩al張mo肆st滲e連qu油al滋ly音v齊ol貧um盈in巡ou亦s:限t同he裹r行ea鼠de洲r掘wh密o妹wa扎nt倉s掀to偉t擇ra陣ce刃t館he置h既is碗to擋ry符o六f技la繡w揭in繪A邁me足ri睜ca修i霉s赤co求nf精ro載nt姿ed朱w絮it線h掩ov暑er素5果,0刊00陜s勺to潮ut鏡v提ol鋸um鍵es獅o屆f治le羅ga符l荒ca押se康s.此No旋o壯ne窮d絨oc堡um勇en原t,班n爭o彩ha獅nd朵fu濁l窩of父d萍oc仰um鐮en彈ts尸,炸ca死n軍pr林op霉er答ly茅b暗e矛sa刻id也t輪o巖re舊ve完al鏟t可he駁c星ha躍ra董ct場er愉o描f躬a羞pe屋op牧le賄o巴r爛of稼t做he剛ir孝g尤ov躲er凱nm雹en究t.近B季ut菌w義he河n存hu傅nd田re違ds酒a慘nd萍t題ho映us行an滲ds舟o葉f戚do脾cu禮me眠nt圍s銳st性ri屈ke哈a劉c件on俘si販st禽en寸t艱no闖te縮,暖ov上er續m頂or戰e燙th毅an攝a碎h凳un肺dr好ed取y爬ea炸rs釘,池we鄙h得av挪e青a珠ri馬gh殺t標to燦s蓋ay沖t律ha傾t準is臥t通he段k亞ey梳no林te簡.桶Wh羨en公h繪un侄dr駐ed破s漫an砌d濫th桑ou雹sa政nd效s插of鵲d城oc虧um虛en印ts進a后dd鈔re弓ss性t步he的ms衡el邪ve掌s療in壽t圾he翁s怨am香e忍wa逮ys頑,假to伴t朗he帶s芽am論e歌ov藍er門ar擔ch答in懷g沾pr粱ob柳le餃ms扶,擁we具h規av賽e遷a搬ri哭gh慕t共to零r廚ea尾d海fr付om陵t貓he沿m罷ce姥rt銜ai貨n毯co稈nc獵lu充si澆on濕s剪wh略ic泄h軋we嘉c膜an行c框al辯l貼na贈ti幸on集al腫c蠻ha內ra給ct烤er仁is祖ti肉cs賀.再Pa縮rt乖T殖wo牌Th疑e樹Am聽er房ic名an倉l狡eg激al鎖s鈔ys啄te柏m,穩l鳳ik忍e泛th艙e荷En遠gl盟is我h,次i熱s時me展th侵od仆ol泰og狐ic秋al屑ly貨m棍ai碧nl授y儲a征ca煎se惑l植aw畏s致ys修te棚m.流M虛os脆t笑fi梨el馬ds殲o嬸f朵pr省iv腳at筆e療la頌w玩st黎il尊l蹈co恥ns阻is狂t帖pr件im姨ar祥il井y勁of樓c或as所e奮la燃w最an搖d輸th藏e厘ex睛te孩ns額iv踐e縮an率d縮st砍ea虎di寒ly掠g緒ro耳wi仿ng艇s壺ta災tu涼to叛ry探l仔aw鐘c返on糟ti牛nu睜es墻t寶o講be毅s刑ub玩je滅ct四t攀o銳bi偉nd慮in摔g像in絮te料rp竹re泛ta訴ti滾on爪t宋hr緒ou危gh繩c贈as關e以la屋w.感K鳴no場wl廟ed鵲ge爹o輝f尼th食e亞ca激se容l爺aw胡m真et懼ho憶d債as患w梁el剖l賢as爹o孕f駐th絕e津te進ch改ni啞qu噸e識of商w每or挪ki兔ng辟w消it爛h緊ca頓se沈l胞aw蔽t潑he枝re賄fo闊re潮i啞s兩of抖c品en喊tr銹al環i驚mp互or月ta肥nc卻e肥fo刻r弓an仇u京nd嚷er散st閑an陡di塊ng宏o愧f講Am襖er革ic祥an征l吃aw咱a槽nd綢l柴eg輔al缸m沈et蘿ho康do少lo餡gy蜜.掩Th朗e迷Co完mm互on惹L搭aw妻i求s劑hi虛st買or羊ic傲al垮ly擊t球he權c京om證mo冶n柄ge技ne爪ra霸l荒la派w甩--輩w憶it稅h丙su另pr步em嬌ac蜜y妖ov截er練l倍oc破al炒l籠aw塊--竟wh介ic萍h滿wa我s覆de搬cr挑ee痕d爐by伙t醫he圓i湖ti觀ne厘ra凈nt易j慚ud橫ge倦s持of困t跪he移E夢ng心li派sh損r朽oy票al墊c營ou牌rt路.戲Th蔑e膏en蕩fo宣rc萬em駐en獅t茅of矛a肝c席la羅im拼p與re慚su快pp登os注ed仆t秩he噸e鈴xi道st略en洞ce蒸o遣f呆a率sp冷ec盆ia呈l異fo燒rm背o吃f烘ac緊ti咐on容,六a重wr罰it祖,炒wi辱th廟t茶he例r毒es彩ul她t孔th右at緣t乳he甲o立ri邪gi販na樂l統co闊mm蚊on傲l升aw醉r裕ep相re老se臉nt都ed特a饑s控ys匆te蹦m截of鵝"屑ac芽ti嘴on鋒s"匪s錦im抵il辛ar嗎t牲o舞th肝at貨o危f額cl綿as蓋si礎ca界l查Ro找ma你n臭la陜w.產I與f鈴a差wr畫it抖e棗xi紗st肯ed界(紋in枝1墓22際7)該a目c卵la別im壩c面ou鋸ld際b毫e問en而fo城rc纏ed持;改th住er泛e戴wa給s渣no尼r穗ec箭ou桌rs測e敗fo踢r短a捆cl議ai味m頭wi紅th烘ou巨t蔥a售wr俘it足,并th但e宏cl翻ai起m扣di暖d根no君t母ex蜘is核t.祥T持hi幻s櫻sy草st墓em蹲b寄ec研am煩e塵in轎fl彩ex窯ib亂le武w竿he族n誕th江e暖"P澇ro于vi數si書on項s艇of破O沙xf蠻or罷d"槽(殺12渴58議)忠pr跡oh當ib超it防ed嫌t側he煌c米re遷at旺io織n狗of鏟n延ew怕w灘ri甘ts仔,該ex聯ce跌pt晉f印or拋t引he溜f芒le鳴xi渣bi譯li增ty伍w蟲hi潛ch映t碧he資"鉤wr床it啟u姑po遺n貴th休e悔ca置se香"性al忙lo型we員d臺an鐮d釘wh披ic鐮h火la泡te探r州le調d拌to繳t留he獄d儀ev免e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ewithminorformalities.Alawyer'spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyermaytraveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereonehasbeenadmitted.Itiscustomarytoretainlocalcounselformattersinotherjurisdictions.However,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmittedwithoutexaminationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedforsometime,oftenfiveyears.Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatisopentoothercitizens.Itisnotuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboardsofdirectorsofcorporateclients,toengageinbusiness,andtoparticipateactivelyinpublicaffairs.Alawyerremainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,anemployeeofthegovernmentorofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,andmayreturntoprivatepracticefromtheseotheractivities.Arelativelysmallnumberoflawyersgiveuppracticeforresponsibleexecutivepositionsincommerceandindustry.ThemobilityaswellasthesenseofpublicresponsibilityintheprofessionisevidencedbythecareerofHarlanFiskeStonewhowas,atvarioustimes,asuccessfulNewYorklawyer,aprofessoranddeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofLaw,AttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates,andChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates.Thereisnoformaldivisionamonglawyersaccordingtofunction.ThedistinctionbetweenbarristersandsolicitorsfoundinEnglanddidnottakerootintheUnitedStates,andthereisnobranchoftheprofessionthathasaspecialorexclusiverighttoappearincourt,noristhereabranchthatspecializesinthepreparationoflegalinstruments.TheAmericanlawyersdomainincludesadvocacy,counselling,anddrafting.Furthermore,withinthespherebroadlydefinedasthe"practiceoflaw"thedomainisexclusiveandisnotopentoothers.Inthefieldofadvocacy,therulesarefairlyclear:anyindividualmayrepresenthimselforherselfincourtbut,withtheexceptionofafewinferiorcourts,onlyalawyermayrepresentanotherincourt.Nonlawyersare,however,authorizedtorepresentothersinformalproceedingsofajudicialnaturebeforesomeadministrativeagencies.Thelinesofdemarcationarelessclearintheareasofcounsellinganddraftingoflegalinstruments,asforexamplebetweenthepracticeoflawandthatofaccountinginthefieldoffederalincometaxation.However,thestrictapproachofmostAmericancourtsisindicatedbyadecisionofNewYorkshighestcourtthatalawyeradmittedtopracticeinaforeigncountrybutnotinNewYorkisprohibitedfromgivinglegaladvicetoclientsinNewYork,eventhoughtheadviceislimitedtothelawoftheforeigncountrywherethelawyerisadmitted.Aforeignlawyermay,however,beadmittedtothebarofoneofthestatesandmay,evenwithoutbeingadmitted,adviseanAmericanlawyerasaconsultantonforeignlaw.PartTwo：LawyersinPrivatePracticeAmongthesefifteenlawyersinpractice,nine,aclearmajority,aresinglepractitioners.Theremainingsixpracticeinlawfirms,whicharegenerallyorganizedaspartnerships.Fourorfiveofthesesixarepartnersandtheothersareassociates,atermappliedtosalariedlawyersemployedbyafirmoranotherlawyer.Thistrendtowardgrouppracticeisofrelativelyrecentorigin.Throughoutmostofthenineteenthcenturylawpracticewasgeneralratherthanspecialized,itschiefingredientwasadvocacyratherthancounsellinganddrafting,andtheprototypeoftheAmericanlawyerwasthesinglepractitioner.Markedspecializationbeganinthelatterpartofthatcenturyinthelargecitiesnearthefinancialcenters.Withthegrowthofbigbusiness,biggovernment,andbiglabor,theworkofthelawyeraccomodateditselftotheneedsofclientsforexpertcounsellinganddraftingtopreventaswellastosettledisputes.Thebestlawyerswereattractedtothisworkandleadershipofthebargravitatedtopersonswhorarelyifeverappearedincourtandwhoweresoughtafterasadvisors,planners,andnegotiators.Todaythelawyerregardsitassoundpracticetobecontinuouslyfamiliarwithclientsbusinessproblemsandtoparticipateatallstepsintheshapingoftheirpolicies.Majorbusinesstransactionsarerarelyundertakenwithoutadviceofcounsel.PartThree:HouseCounselOutofeverytwentylawyers,twoareemployedbyprivatebusinessconcerns,suchasindustrialcorporations,insurancecompanies,andbanks,usuallyashouseorcorporatecounselintheconcernslegaldepartment.Thegrowthofcorporations,thecomplexityofbusiness,andthemultitudeofproblemsposedbygovernmentregulationmakeitdesirableforsuchfirmstohaveintheiremploypersonswithlegaltrainingwho,atthesametime,areintimatelyfamiliarwiththeparticularproblemsandconditionsofthefirm.Inlargecorporationsthelegaldepartmentmaynumberonehundredormore.Thegeneralcounsel,whoheadstheoffice,isusuallyanofficerofthecompanyandmayserveonimportantpolicymakingcommitteesandperhapsevenontheboardofdirectors.Housecounselremainmembersofthebarandareentitledtoappearincourt,thoughanoutsidelawyerisoftenretainedforlitigation.However,itisthehousecounselsskillasadvisorratherthanasadvocatethatisavaluedasset.Constantlyintouchwiththeemployersproblems,housecounselisideallysituatedtopracticepreventivelawandmayalsobecalledupontoadvisethecompanyonitsbroaderobligationtothepublicandthenation.PartFour：LawyersinGovernmentAparalleldevelopmenthastakenplaceingovernmentandtwooutoftwentylawyersarenowemployeesofthefederal,state,county,andmunicipalgovernments,exclusiveofthejudiciary.Manyofthoseenteringpublicservicearerecentlawgraduateswhofindgovernmentsalariessufficientlyattractiveatthisstageoftheircareersandseekthetrainingthatsuchservicemayofferasapreludetoprivatepractice.Limitationsontopsalaries,however,discouragesomefromcontinuingwiththegovernment.Themajorityservesbyappointmentinthelegaldepartmentsofavarietyoffederalandstateagenciesandlocalentities.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofJusticealoneemploysmorethantwothousands,andtheLawDepartmentoftheCityofNewYorkmorethanfourhundreds.Othersareengagedaspublicprosecutors.Federalprosecutors,theUnitedStatesattorneysandtheirassistants,areappointedbythePresidentandaresubordinatetotheAttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates.Stateprosecutors,sometimesknownasdistrictattorneys,arecommonlyelectedbyeachcountyandarenotunderthecontrolofthestateattorneygeneral.Asarule,lawyersingovernmentaredirectlyengagedinlegalwork,sincelawtrainingisinfrequentlysoughtaspreparationforgeneralgovernmentservice.However,asmallbutimportantminoritythatconstitutesanexceptiontothisruleconsistsofthosewhohavebeenappointedtohighexecutivepositionsandthosewhohavebeenelectedtopoliticaloffice.Thoughtheparticipationoflawyersingovernmenthasdeclinedrecently,fortwocenturieslawyershavemadeuproughlyhalfoftheCongressoftheUnitedStatesandofthestategovernors.ThesefiguresbearoutthecommentofChiefJusticeStonethat,"Notraditionofourprofessionismorecherishedbylawyersthanthatofitsleadershipinpublicaffairs."LessonThree:LegalEducation法律教育Background背景美國的法律教育體制具有一個不同于世界上其他國家的特點，即沒有一般意義上的法學本科生。美國法學院的學生都是本科畢業生。換言之，申請入法學院學習者必須已在其他專業領域內獲得了學士學位。這反映了美國人注重權利和法律的傳統。他們認為，法律事務涉及人的各種權利和復雜的社會生活，因此從事法律工作的人應該象醫生一樣，具有比從事其他職業的人更為豐富的學識和經歷。從理論上講，在任何專業領域內獲得學士學位的人都可以考法學院；但是在實踐中，法學院學生多在政治學(PoliticalScience)、經濟學(Economics)、刑事司法(CriminalJustice)、社會學(Sociology)、新聞學(Journalism)等學科獲有學士學位。雖然美國律師協會(ABA)對其認可的法學院有統一的評估標準，但是各法學院在學位設置和課程設置上仍有很大的自主性和靈活性。一般來說，美國法學院設置的學位主要有法律博士(JD,即JurisDoctor)、法學碩士(LLM，即MasterofLaws)和法學博士(SJD，即DoctorofJuridicalScience)。法律博士學位課程是法學院的根本教育課程，猶如中國及其他國家的法學專業本科課程。法律博士學位的學制一般為三年，其第一年以必修課(RequiredCourse)為主，包括合同法(ContractLaw)、侵權法(TortLaw)、財產法(PropertyLaw)、刑法(CriminalLaw)、民事訴訟(CivilProcedure)和法律文書寫作(LegalWriting)等；第二年和第三年那么以選修課(ElectiveCourse)為主，學生可以根據自己的興趣和意愿從幾十門法律課程中選修假設干門，但要到達學校規定的學分標準。法學碩士和法學博士的培養屬于法學院的研究生教育。攻讀法學碩士學位的人必須已經獲得了法律博士學位或者在其他國家獲得了法學學士學位；其學制一般為一至二年；其學習方式以修課為主，而且法學院一般允許學生以增修一定學分的方式代替畢業論文。攻讀法學博士學位的人一般應已獲得了法學碩士或法律博士學位；其學制一般為三至五年；其學習內容主要為撰寫學位論文，但法學院院長或其導師也可能要求其選修一定課程或從事一定研究工作。法學院很少開設專門面向研究生的課程，因此研究生多與"本科生"(JD生)一起聽課。美國法學院的教授在教學過程中較重視對批判性思維(criticalthinking)方式的培養，且多采用案例教學法(CaseMethod)和問答式即蘇格拉底式教學法(SocraticMethod)。誠然，在美國的法學教授中亦不乏偏愛講演式教學法(LectureMethod)的"說書人"(story-teller)。Text課文In1983,over125,000lawstudentswerestudyinginmorethan170ABAaccreditedlawschoolsincludingpubliclawschoolssupportedinpartbygovernmentfunds;privatelawschoolssupportedbycontributionsfromindividualsandfoundationfunds;andlocalornationalschoolsofferingfulltimeorparttimelegalstudyprograms.Asvirtuallytheonlywaytoprepareformembershipinthelegalprofession,lawschoolsintheUnitedStatesfulfillseveralfunctionsincludingprofessionaltrainingandsocializationoffuturelawyersandscreeningandgatekeepingforentrancetotheprofession.Sincethereisnocentralinstitutionwherealllawyerspractice,theonlyinstitutionalexperiencewhichlawyershaveincommonislawschool.Thecriticismswhichrangefrom"mildtocaustic"ofthewayinwhichlawschoolshavecarriedoutthesefunctionsandofthefunctionsthemselveshavebeenpersistent,diverseandrootedinthehistoricalandpoliticaldevelopmentoftheprofession.Thesecriticismshavefocussedonthecurriculumandthedominanceofthecasemethod;thedistributionofpowerandprestigereflectedinthehierarchywithinandamongthelawschools;andtheimbalanceintermsofwomenandminoritiesinthestudentbodyandfacultyinthelawschools.PartOne：CurriculumandtheCaseMethodThetraditionalfirstyearprogramofferedinvirtuallyallAmericanlawschoolsincludescontracts,torts,property,criminallawandcivilprocedure.DuncanKennedyhasdescribedthetraditionalfirstyearcurriculumasbasicallyteachingthegroundrulesforlate19thcenturylaissezfairecapitalism.ThesecondyearandthirdyearcourseexpoundthemoderatereformistNewDealprogramandtheadministrativestructureofthemodernregulatorystate.Theperipheralsubjects,iftheyareoffered,includelegalphilosophy,legalhistory,legalprocess,andclinicaleducation,a"kindofplaygroundorfinishingschoolforlearningthesocialartofselfpresentationasalawyer".However,asnewareasofthelawcontinuetodevelopinresponsetocontemporaryissuesandproblems,somelawschoolshaveexpandedcurriculatoincludecoursesandclinicalprogramsinenvironmentallaw,housingandurbandevelopment,womensrights,healthintheworkplace,welfarerightsandconsumerprotection.Therearealsoincreasingeffortstoteachlawininterdisciplinarycontexts,drawingonotherdisciplinessuchashistory,psychology,sociology,medicine,andeconomics.Inteachingthetraditionalcurriculum,lawteachersinalmostallthelawschoolsusetosomeextentthecasemethodortheSocraticmethod.Developedinthe1870sbyChristopherColumbusLangdellattheHarvardLawSchool,thecasemethodlookedtothecommonlawasthesourceoflegalpriniciplesandfocussedontheteachingofanabstractconceptionofthelawasascience.Thelegalprincipleselicitedweretobetaughtdivorcedfromthe"grubbyworldofpractice--andalsofrompolitics,history,economics,andsocialcontexts".Thisnarrowformalisticapproachwasjustifiedonthegroundthatittaughtstudentshowtostate,analyze,evaluateandcompareconcretefactsituationsthusdevelopingtheirpowersandskillsofanalysis,reasoning,andexpression.However,thisprocessoflearning"howtothinklikealawyer"hasbeencriticizedashavinganadverseimpactbothonthestudentsandthequalityoffuturelawyering.Students,lawteachers,andothershavepointedtothealienation,anxiety,hostilityandaggressioncausedbyuseofthecasemethodorSocraticmethod.Thenarrowanddestructiveinteractionofthisdialogue,oroften"nondialogue",contributestotheimpairmentoftheabilitytocareaboutotherpeople,aprofessionalunemotionalismandcynicismonthepartoflawstudents.Anditisnotonlythelawstudentswhosufferfromthisnarrowingoftheirprofessionalselves.Theworkofalawyerinvolvescontinuouscontactswithclients,associates,otherlawyers,judges,witnesses,othersaffectedbythelaw,andinvolvesthelawyersowngoals,attitudes,performance,andsenseofsatisfaction.PartTwo：LawSchoolHierarchyDuncanKennedyhasdescribedthelawschoolsas"intenselypoliticalplaces",characterizedbya"tradeschoolmentality,theendlessattentiontotreesattheexpenseofforests."Thelawschoolsfunctionastheinstitutionfor"ideologicaltrainingforwillingserviceinthehierarchiesofthecorporatewelfarestate".Intherankingandevaluationofstudents,studentslearntoaccepttheirplaceinahierarchywhichispresentedasjustandinevitableand"sopreparethemselvesforallthehierarchiestofollow".Inthelawteachersmodelingofhierarchicalrelationshipswithstudents,colleagues,secretariesandsupportstaff,studentslearnaparticularstyleofcondescensiontowardsperceivedinferiorsanddeferencetowardsperceivedsuperiors.Andunderthesubtlebutintensepressuretoconformtothe"white,male,middleclasstone"setbylawfacultieswhichareoverwhelminglywhite,male,andmiddleclass,lawstudentsadapt,"partlyoutoffear,partlyoutofhopeofgain,partlyoutofgenuineadmirationfortheirrolemodels".Intheseways,"legaleducationisoneofthecausesoflegalhierarchy.Legaleducationsupportsitbyanalogy,providesitagenerallegitimatingideologybyjustifyingtherulesthatunderlieit,andprovidesitaparticularideologybymystifyinglegalreasoning.Legaleducationstructuresthepoolofprospectivelawyerssothattheirhierarchicalorganizationseemsinevitable,andtrainsthemtolookandthinkandactjustlikealltheotherlawyersinthesystem".InadditiontothehierarchywithinthelawschoolssuggestedbyKennedy,otheranalysesofthelawschoolsfunctionsandrelationshiptotheprofessionsuggesttheexistenceofahierarchyamongthelawschools.Thetopdozenorsoelitelawschoolsoccupyapositionofpowerandprestigewhichispartiallyreflectedintheprofessionalcareerpathsoftheirgraduatesandinthe"oldboynetworks"connectingthelawschoolsandtherestofthelegalprofession.Themodelsofthe"lawschoolasthegatewaytotheAmericanpowerelitebecamepossiblewiththeNewDeal".FelixFrankfurtersplacementnetworkforthe"bestandthebrightest"intoinfluentialpublicpolicypositionsduringtheNewDealinthe1930swasanearlyexampleofthiskindofnetwork.DuringhistenureatHarvardandlaterwhileontheSupremeCourt,Frankfurterdevelopedan"oldboynetwork"whichwasintimatelyinvolvedwiththeplacementofmanyofthe"elite"lawyers,allofwhomwerewhiteandmale,intopublicservice.ThetypicalFrankfurterrecruitwas"agraduateofHarvardLawSchool,politicallyliberal,usuallyrankedhighinhisclass,andeitheranobviousproductofupperclassgentilecultureoranobviousproductofara