（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯Presentingaspeech（做演講）Ofallhumancreations，languagemaybethemostremarkable。Through在人類所有的創(chuàng)造中，語言也許是影響最為深遠(yuǎn)的。我們用語言languageweshareexperience，formulatevalues,exchangeideas,transmit來分享經(jīng)驗(yàn)，表達(dá)（傳遞？）價(jià)值觀，交換想法，傳播知識(shí)，knowledge,andsustainculture.Indeed，languageisvitaltothinkitself.傳承文化。 事實(shí)上，對(duì)語言本身的思考也是至關(guān)重要的。[Contrarytopopularbelief],languageIdoesnotsimplymirrorrealitybutalsohelpstocreateoursenseofreality[bygivingmeaningtoevents]。和通常所認(rèn)為的不同的是，語言并不只是簡(jiǎn)單地反映現(xiàn)實(shí)，語言在具體描述事件的時(shí)候也在幫助我們建立對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)的感知。 語序的調(diào)整.Goodspeakershaverespectforlanguageandknowhowitworks。Wordsarethetoolsofaspeaker,scraft。Theyhavespecialuses,justlikethetoolsofanyotherprofession。Asaspeaker,youshouldbeawareofthemeaningofwordsandknowhowtouselanguageaccurately，clearly，vividly，andappropriately。好的演講者對(duì)語言很重視，也知道如何讓它發(fā)揮更好的效果。詞語是演講者演講的重要“武器”，具有特殊的用途，這和任何其他的工作技藝沒什么兩樣。作為演講者，必須知道詞語的具體含義，也要懂得如何做到用詞準(zhǔn)確、清晰、生動(dòng)、適當(dāng)。Usinglanguageaccuratelyisasvitaltoaspeakerasusingnumbersaccuratelytoaaccountant.Neveruseawordunlessyouaresureofitsmeaning.Ifyouarenotsure,lookupthewordinthedictionary.Asyouprepareyourspeeches，askyourselfconstantly,“WhatdoIreallywanttosay?WhatdoIreallymean?”Choosewordsthat（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯arepreciseandaccurate.演講者準(zhǔn)確地使用語言和會(huì)計(jì)準(zhǔn)確使用數(shù)字是一樣重要的。確定詞意后再措詞。如果不確定，請(qǐng)先查詞典.當(dāng)你在準(zhǔn)備演講的時(shí)候，要不斷地問自己：“我到底要說什么？我到底想表達(dá)什么意思？"用詞一定要精準(zhǔn)。Usinglanguageclearlyallowslistenerstograspyourmeaningimmediately.Youcanensurethis[byusingfamiliarwords(thatareknowntotheaveragepersonandrequirenospecializedbackground);bychoosingconcretewordsinpreferencetomoreabstractones,andbyeliminatingverbalclutter].用詞清晰可以讓聽眾迅速理解你的意思(抓到你的點(diǎn)).要做到這一點(diǎn)，就要盡量使用一般人都熟悉的不需要專業(yè)知識(shí)就能懂的詞語；多用具象詞匯少用抽象詞匯；還有要減少口誤。Usinglanguagevividlyhelpsbringyourspeechtolife。Oneway(tomakeyourspeechvivid)|isthroughimagery,orthecreationofwordpictures。Youcandevelopimagerybyusingconcretelanguage,simile,andmetaphoroSimileisanexplicitcomparisonbetweenthings(thatareessentiallydifferentyethavesomethingincommon)；italwayscontainsthewords"like"oraas".Metaphorisanimplicitcomparisonbetweenthingsthataredifferentyethavesomethingincommon；itdoesnotcontainthewords“l(fā)ike”or“as”.生動(dòng)地用詞能讓演講鮮活起來！比喻，這種能產(chǎn)生文字圖像的修辭，可以使演講達(dá)到生動(dòng)的效果。比喻要用具象的語言，分為明喻和隱喻。明喻是指在本質(zhì)上有區(qū)別但仍然有相同點(diǎn)的事物之間做一個(gè)明確的比較，一般句中會(huì)含有“像”或“似"。隱喻則是一種隱藏的比較，不會(huì)出現(xiàn)like和as這些連接詞。Anotherwaytomakeyourspeechesvividisbyexploitingtherhythmoflanguage.Fourdevicesforcreatingrhythmareparallelism,repetition,alliteration,andantithesiso（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯Parallelismisthesimilararrangementofapairorseriesofrelatedwords,phrases,orsentences.Repetitionistheuseofthesamewordorsetofwordsatthebeginningorendofsuccessiveclausesorsentences.AlliterationcomesfromrepeatingtheinitialconstantsoundsofcloseoradjoiningwordsoAntithesisisthejuxtapositionofcontrastingideas,usuallyinparallelstructureo我們還可以充分利用語言的節(jié)奏感使演講更加生動(dòng)活潑。具體有以下四種方式—-排比，反復(fù)，押頭韻和對(duì)偶。排比是指把一組或一系列相關(guān)的字詞句以相似結(jié)構(gòu)排列起來。反復(fù)是指在連續(xù)幾個(gè)從句或句子的開頭或結(jié)尾處使用相同的詞和詞組。押頭韻則是通過重復(fù)相鄰之間單詞首個(gè)輔音實(shí)現(xiàn)的。對(duì)偶通常是用平行的結(jié)構(gòu)將相反的想法并列在一起。Usinglanguageappropriatelymeansadaptingtotheparticularoccasion,audience,andtopicathand.Italsomeansdevelopingyourownlanguagestyleinsteadoftryingtocopysomeoneelse's。Ifyourlanguageisappropriateinallrespectsyourspeechismuchmorelikelytosucceed.用語恰當(dāng)意味著遣詞造句要與特定的場(chǎng)合，觀眾以及談?wù)摰脑掝}相適應(yīng)。這也意味著你得建立自己的語言風(fēng)格，不能簡(jiǎn)單抄襲他人。如果使用的語言與各方面都很契合，那么演講就更有可能取得成功。Goodspeechesarenotcomposedofhotairandunfoundedassertions.Theyneedstrongsupportingmaterialstobolsterthespeaker,spointofview。Infact,theskillfuluseofsupportingmaterialsoftenmakesthedifferencebetweenagoodspeechandapoorone。Thethreebasictypesofsupportingmaterialsareexamples,statisticsandtestimonyo好的演講不能是空話連篇，也不能是一些毫無根據(jù)的論斷；而是需要有力的論據(jù)來支持演講者的觀點(diǎn)。事實(shí)上，能否有技巧地使用論據(jù)會(huì)造成演講效果的天壤之別。論據(jù)有以下三種基本形式：例子，統(tǒng)計(jì)資料，引用。（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯Inthecourseofaspeechyoumayusebriefexamples—specificinstancesreferredtoinpassing—andsometimesyoumaywanttogiveseveralbriefexamplesinarowtocreateastrongerimpression。Extendedexamples——oftencalledillustrations,narrations，oranecdotes—arelongerandmoredetailed.Hypotheticalexamplesdescribeimagerysituationsandcanbequiteeffectiveforrelatingideastotheaudience.Allthreekindsofexampleshelptoclarifyideas，toreinforceideas,ortopersonalizeideas.Tobemoreeffective,though,theyshouldbevividandrichlytextured.在演講時(shí)可以簡(jiǎn)單舉例——即附帶地提及幾個(gè)具體的例子——有時(shí)也需要接二連三舉例來加深印象。延伸舉例—-也叫解釋、敘述或軼事--更長(zhǎng)更詳盡。假設(shè)舉例描述的是想象的情景，能夠很好地把想法傳達(dá)給觀眾。這三種不同的例子都有助于演講者清晰地表達(dá)觀點(diǎn)，強(qiáng)調(diào)觀點(diǎn)并使之打上演講者的烙印。當(dāng)然，要想演講效果更好，演講本身必須生動(dòng)且結(jié)構(gòu)豐富！Statisticscanbeextremelyhelpfulinconveyingyourmessage，[aslongasyouusethemsparinglyandexplainthemsotheyaremeaningfultoyouraudiencWAboveall,youshouldunderstandyourstatisticsandusethemfairly。Numberscaneasilybemanipulatedanddistorted.Makesure{thatyourfiguresarerepresentativeof{whattheyclaimtomeasure),thatyouusestatisticalmeasurescorrectly，andthatyoutakestatisticsonlyfromreliablesourceso}統(tǒng)計(jì)資料非常有助于演講者傳遞信息，因?yàn)楫?dāng)演講者適量地運(yùn)用這些資料并加以解釋時(shí)，聽眾就能更好地理解其中的意義。最重要的是，演講者必須理解這些統(tǒng)計(jì)資料并恰當(dāng)使用。數(shù)字很容易被篡改、誤報(bào)，因此必須確保自己所使用的數(shù)據(jù)不是張冠李戴的；必須確保自己使用的統(tǒng)計(jì)措施是正確的；必須確保自己的統(tǒng)計(jì)資料來源是可靠的。Testimonyisespeciallyhelpfulforstudentspeakers，becausetheyareseldomrecognizedasexpectsontheirspeechtopics。Citingtheviewsofpeople(whoare（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯experts）isagoodwaytomakeyourideasmorecredible.Whenyouincludetestimonyinaspeech,youcaneitherquotesomeoneverbatimorparaphrasetheirwords.Aswithstatistics，thereareguidelinesforusingtestimony.Besuretoquoteorparaphraseaccuratelyandtocitequalifiedunbiasedsources。Ifthesourceisnotgenerallyknowntoyouraudience，becertaintoestablishhisorhercredentials。引用他人觀點(diǎn)看法對(duì)學(xué)生演講者來說尤其有用，因?yàn)閷W(xué)生很少會(huì)被視為他們演講相關(guān)主題方面的專家。引用專家的觀點(diǎn)可以讓你的想法更可信。引用的時(shí)候，既可以逐字摘抄也可以自己總結(jié)一下。和統(tǒng)計(jì)資料一樣，引用也有原則可循——引用摘抄準(zhǔn)確，來源合格無偏見。如果觀眾對(duì)引用來源不太熟悉，一定要（想辦法）取得他們的信任。Theimpactofaspeechisstronglyaffectedbyhowthespeechisdelivered。Youcannotmakeaspeechwithouthavingsomethingtosay。Buthavingsomethingtosayisnotenough。Youmustalsoknowhowtosayit.Gooddeliverydoesnotcallattentiontoitself.Itconveysthespeaker,sideasclearly,interestingly，and[withoutdistractingtheaudience].演講的效果如何很大程度上取決于演講是怎么做的。無話可說做不好演講，但要做好演講，僅僅有話可說也是遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠的，還要知道如何說話才行。好的演講不是要喚起觀眾對(duì)演講本身的注意，而是要向觀眾清晰有趣地傳遞演講者的想法，同時(shí)還要有觀眾聚精會(huì)神地聆聽.Therearefourbasicmethodsofdeliveringaspeech：readingverbatimfromamanuscript,recitingamemorizedtext,speakingwithPowerPoint,andspeakingextemporaneously,orimpromptu.Thelastofthese一speakingextemporaneously-isthemethod（youprobablywilluseforclassroomspeechesandformostspeechesoutsidetheclassroom）。Whenspeakingextemporaneously,youwillhaveonlyabriefsetofnotesoraspeakingoutline。SpeakingwithPowerPointiswidelyusednowandveryeffectiveindeed.演講有四種最基本的方法：照本宣科式；背誦式；ppt輔助演講式和即興演講式。最后一項(xiàng)即興（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯演講是我們?cè)谡n堂演講和大部分課外演講中都要用到的方法.即興演講時(shí)，我們手上只有簡(jiǎn)單的筆記或演講提綱.現(xiàn)在，用ppt輔助演講十分普遍，效果顯著。Certainlythereareotherfactorsyoushouldconsider，suchaspersonalappearance，bodilyaction，gestures,eyecontact,volume,pausesandsoon.Bypayingenoughattentiontowhatismentionedabove，youmaypresentaneffectivespeech.當(dāng)然還要考慮其他因素——譬如演講者的個(gè)人形象，肢體語言，眼神交流，聲音的抑揚(yáng)頓挫等等。盡量注意上述問題，演講就會(huì)成功！（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯Unit2EnergyinTransition能源轉(zhuǎn)型Theeraofcheapandconvenientsourcesofenergyiscomingtoanend.Atransitiontomoreexpensivebutlesspollutingsourcesmustnowbemanagedo能源資源價(jià)格低廉、使用便捷的時(shí)代已經(jīng)過去了，目前應(yīng)向盡管價(jià)格較高、但污染較小的資源轉(zhuǎn)變。JohnPoHoldrenUnderstandingthistransitionrequiresalookatthetwo-sidedconnectionbetweenenergyandhumanwell-being.Energycontributespositivelytowell-beingbyprovidingsuchconsumerservicesasheatingandlightingaswellasservingasanecessaryinputtoeconomicproduction.Butthecostsofenergy-includingnotonlythemoneyandotherresourcesdevotedtoobtainingandexploitingitbutalsoenvironmentalandsociopoliticalimpacts-detractfromwell—being。1.要了解這一轉(zhuǎn)變，首先需要考察一下能源和人類幸福的雙重關(guān)系.能源為人類提供了諸如取暖、照明等消費(fèi)服務(wù)的同時(shí)，也為經(jīng)濟(jì)生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)提供必要投入，從這個(gè)意義上講，能源為人類幸福做出了積極貢獻(xiàn)。然而，人類為利用能源所付出的代價(jià)卻削弱了能源為其帶來的利益，這種代價(jià)不僅包括為獲取和利用能源所投入的資金和其他資源，而且包含了能源開發(fā)和利用所產(chǎn)生的環(huán)境影響和社會(huì)政治影響.Formostofhumanhistory,thedominantconcernsaboutenergyhavecenteredonthebenefitsideoftheenergy-well-beingequation。Inadequacyofenergyresourcesor(moreoften)ofthetechnologiesandorganizationsforharvestingconverting,anddistributingthoseresourceshasmeantinsufficientenergybenefitsandhenceinconvenience,deprivationandconstraintsongrowth.The1970'sthen,representedaturningpointoAfterdecadesofconstancyordeclineinmonetarycosts-andof（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯relegationofenvironmentalandsociopoliticalcoststosecondarystatus-energywasseentobegettingcostlierinallrespects.ItbegantobeplausiblethatexcessiveenergycostscouldposethreatsonaparwiththoseofinsufficientsupplyItalsobecamepossibletothinkthatexpandingsomeformsofenergysupplycouldcreatecostsexceedingthebenefits。2.人類歷史發(fā)展長(zhǎng)河中，人們主要關(guān)心的是能源和人類安康等式中有利的一面。能源資源不足或者（更經(jīng)常）開采、加工和分配這些資源所需技術(shù)和機(jī)構(gòu)的不足，會(huì)影響能源為人類帶來的利益，對(duì)人類也就意味著不方便、損失以及對(duì)增長(zhǎng)的各種限制。到了20世紀(jì)70年代，出現(xiàn)了一個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)折點(diǎn)。此前的幾十年中，能源的資金成本一直保持穩(wěn)定，甚至有所下降，而且，其所牽扯的環(huán)境成本和社會(huì)政治成本一直處于次要地位.但是20世紀(jì)70年代開始，開發(fā)和利用能源的多方成本均顯著增長(zhǎng)。人們自然有理由認(rèn)為：高昂的能源成本所帶來的威脅已同能源供應(yīng)不足所產(chǎn)生的威脅不相上下。同時(shí)，也有人擔(dān)心，依靠擴(kuò)大能源資源增加供應(yīng)所需付出的代價(jià)，也許大于其所帶來的利益。Thecrucialquestionatthebeginningofthe1990,siswhetherthetrendthatbeganinthe1970'swillprovetobetemporaryorpermanent。Istheeraofcheapenergyreallyover,orwillacombinationofnewresources,newtechnologyandchanginggeopoliticsbringitback?Onekeydeterminantoftheansweristhestaggeringscaleofenergydemandbroughtforthby100yearsofunprecedentedpopulationgrowth,coupledwithanequallyremarkablegrowthinpercapitademandofindustrialenergyforms.Itentailedtheuseofdirtycoalaswellasclean；underseaoilaswellasterrestrial;deepgasaswellasshallow;mediocrehydroelectricsitesaswellasgoodonesanddeforestationaswellassustainablefuelwoodharvesting.3.20世紀(jì)90年代初期人們關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)在于，這種始于70年代的能源發(fā)展趨勢(shì)是暫時(shí)的還是長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)的。廉價(jià)能源時(shí)代是真正一去不復(fù)返，還是通過開發(fā)新能源、應(yīng)用新技術(shù)、改革地緣政治秩（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯序等措施，有可能重登歷史舞臺(tái)？回答這個(gè)問題的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵因素是過去100年以來因人口空前增長(zhǎng)帶來的令人瞠目的能源需求以及同樣使人無所應(yīng)對(duì)的人均工業(yè)能源需求。急劇增長(zhǎng)的能源需求使得人類對(duì)能源的使用無所不用其極：不管是清潔煤炭還是劣質(zhì)煤炭（或“無矸煤還是有殲煤”），見煤就挖；無論是陸上石油還是海底石油，深層氣還是淺層氣，見油氣就采；水電站建設(shè)不論適宜與否，見水就上；一邊綠化造林以求薪材可持續(xù)發(fā)展，一邊卻砍樹毀林。ExceptforthehugepoolofoilunderlyingtheMiddleEastthecheapestoilandgasarealreadygone.Evenifafewmoregiantoilfieldsarediscoveredtheywillmakelittledifferenceagainstconsumptionontoday,sscale.Oilandgaswillhavetocomeincreasingly,formostcountries,fromdeeperintheearthandfromimportswhosereliabilityandaffordabilitycannotbeguaranteed.4。除了中東地區(qū)蘊(yùn)藏著巨大的石油資源，地球上廉價(jià)的油氣資源已經(jīng)不復(fù)存在了。即使偶爾找到幾個(gè)大的油田，同當(dāng)今巨大的能源消耗相比，也是杯水車薪。對(duì)于大多數(shù)國(guó)家來說，油氣資源越來越多地依賴進(jìn)口，且不說進(jìn)口油氣資源的可靠性無法得到保障，其對(duì)進(jìn)口國(guó)的支付能力也是一個(gè)考驗(yàn)。Thereareavarietyofotherenergyresourcesthataremoreabundantthanoilandgas.Coal,solarenergy,andfissionandfusionfuelsarethemostimportantones。Buttheyallrequireelaborateandexpensivetransformationintoelectricityorliquidfuelsinordertomeetsociety'sneeds.Nonehasverygoodprospectsfordeliveringlargequantitiesofelectricityatcostscomparabletothoseofthecheapcoal-firedandhydropowerplantsofthe1960,soItappears,then,thatexpensiveenergyisapermanentcondition,evenwithoutallowingforitsenvironmentalcosts.5.誠(chéng)然，其他許多資源的儲(chǔ)量大于石油和天然氣，最重要的有煤、太陽能、聚變裂變?nèi)剂系?但是這些能源轉(zhuǎn)化成電力或液體燃料，以滿足社會(huì)需求，需要經(jīng)過技術(shù)復(fù)雜、成本昂貴的轉(zhuǎn)化過程。同20世紀(jì)60年代成本低廉的燃煤火電站和水力發(fā)電站相比，僅從成本考慮，以上各種資源用（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯于大規(guī)模發(fā)電的可能性極小。因此，即使不考慮能源開采的環(huán)境成本，能源價(jià)格居高不下已成無可改變的定局。Thecapacityoftheenvironmenttoabsorbtheeffluentsandotherimpactsofenergytechnologiesisitselfafiniteresource.Thefinitudeismanifestedintwobasictypesofenvironmentalcosts。Externalcostsarethoseimposedbyenvironmentaldisruptionsonsocietybutnotreflectedinthemonetaryaccountsofthebuyersandsellersoftheenergy.“Internalizedcosts”areincreasesinmonetarycostsimposedbymeasures,suchaspollution-controldevices，aimedatreducingtheexternalcostso6。環(huán)境吸納由于能源利用而產(chǎn)生的廢棄物和其他影響的能力本身也是有限度的，表現(xiàn)在兩方面的環(huán)境成本上.所謂“外延成本”即由于環(huán)境遭到破壞對(duì)社會(huì)造成的影響，但尚未反映到能源買賣雙方的交易價(jià)格上；所謂“內(nèi)涵成本”即為降低外延成本而采取的各種措施（如污染防治措施）所引起的貨幣成本的增長(zhǎng)。Bothtypesofenvironmentalcostshavebeenrisingforseveralreasons。First,thedecliningqualityoffueldepositsandenergy-conversionsitestowhichsocietymustnowturnmeansmorematerialmustbemovedorprocessed,biggerfacilitiesmustbeconstructedandlongerdistancesmustbetraversedSecond,thegrowingmagnitudeofeffluentsfromenergysystemshasledtosaturationoftheenvironment,scapacitytoabsorbsucheffluentswithoutdisruption.Third,themonetarycostsofcontrollingpollutiontendtoincreasewiththepercentageofpollutantsremoved。7。兩種環(huán)境成本均一直呈增長(zhǎng)趨勢(shì)，原因是多方面的。首先，社會(huì)發(fā)展所依賴的燃料礦藏和加工地質(zhì)量下降，必然要求礦物運(yùn)輸和加工的數(shù)量增加、設(shè)施擴(kuò)大、運(yùn)輸距離延長(zhǎng)。第二，能源利用所產(chǎn)生的廢棄物不斷增加，使得環(huán)境自我凈化能力達(dá)到了極限。第三，污染防治所需的資金成本亦將隨著消除污染物比例的提高而提高。Despitetheseexpenditures,theremaininguninternalizedenvironmentalcostshavebeen(完整word版)學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯substantialandinmanycasesaregrowing.Thoseofgreatestconcernaretheriskofdeathordiseaseasaresultofemissionsoraccidentsatenergyfacilitiesandtheimpactofenergysuppliedontheglobalecosystemandoninternationalrelationso8.盡管代價(jià)高昂，尚未內(nèi)化的環(huán)境成本一直居高不下，并在許多情形下呈增長(zhǎng)趨勢(shì)，其中最引人關(guān)注的是由能源設(shè)施排放廢物或發(fā)生事故所帶來的死亡和疾病，以及由于能源供應(yīng)對(duì)全球生態(tài)系統(tǒng)和國(guó)際關(guān)系造成的影響。TheimpactsofenergytechnologiesonpublichealthandsafetyaredifficulttopindownwithmuchconfidencesInthecaseofairpollutionfromfossilfuelsinwhichthedominantthreattopublichealthisthoughttobeparticulatesformedfromsulfurdioxideemissions,aconsensusonthenumberofdeathscausedbyexposurehasprovedimpossibleoWidelydifferingestimatesresultfromdifferentassumptionsaboutfuelcompositions,airpollutioncontroltechnology,power-plantsittinginrelationtopopulationdistribution,meteorologicalconditionsaffectingsulfateformation,and,aboveall,therelationbetweensulfateconcentrationsanddisease.9.能源技術(shù)對(duì)于大眾健康和安全所造成的影響難以確定。以礦物燃料造成的空氣污染為例，一般認(rèn)為其對(duì)大眾健康的主要危害是由排放的二氧化硫形成的微粒，但接觸這種污染空氣究竟會(huì)導(dǎo)致多少人死亡，卻無法取得一致意見。各種估算數(shù)據(jù)千差萬別，原因在于對(duì)以下各種因素的分析各不相同，比如燃料構(gòu)成、空氣污染防治技術(shù)、發(fā)電廠選址同人口分布之間的關(guān)系、氣象條件對(duì)硫化物形成的影響，最重要的是硫化物濃度與疾病之間的關(guān)系。Largeuncertaintiesalsoapplytothehealthandsafetyimpactsofnuclearfission。Inthiscase,differingestimatesresultinpartfromdifferencesamongsitesandreactortypes,inpartfromuncertaintiesaboutemissionsfromfue-cyclestepsthatarenotyetfullyoperational(especiallyfuelreprocessingandmanagementofuranium-milltailings)andinpartfromdifferentassumptionsabouttheeffectsofexposureto(完整word版)學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯low-doseradiation.Thebiggestuncertainties,however,relatetotheprobabilitiesandconsequencesoflargeaccidentsatreactors,atreprocessingplantsandinthetransportofwastes。10。同樣，核反應(yīng)堆對(duì)于大眾健康和安全的影響亦無法確定.對(duì)此種影響的各種估測(cè)，既有來自關(guān)于反應(yīng)堆選址和類型的不同觀點(diǎn)，又有因?yàn)楹巳剂戏磻?yīng)過程(尤其是核燃料回收以及鈾選礦尾礦管理)還不完備，這些環(huán)節(jié)所產(chǎn)生的廢棄物究竟會(huì)產(chǎn)生何種影響尚無法確定；同時(shí)還有因?yàn)閷?duì)于人類接觸少量核輻射所造成的后果各執(zhí)己見。然而，最大的不確定性來自核反應(yīng)堆、重新加工工廠以及核廢料運(yùn)輸過程中可能發(fā)生重大事故的概率及所造成的后果。Altogether，therangesofestimatedhazardstopublichealthfrombothcoal——firedandnuclear-powerplantsaresowideastoextendfromnegligibletosubstantialincomparisonwithotherriskstothepopulation。Thereislittlebasis,intheseranges,forpreferringoneoftheseenergysourcesovertheotheroForboth,theverysizeoftheuncertaintyisitselfasignificantliability。11.同人類面臨的其他威脅相比，火電廠和核電廠危害大眾健康的程度究竟有多大，眾說紛紜，莫衷一是。有的人認(rèn)為這種影響微不足道，可以忽略不計(jì)；也有人認(rèn)為這種影響程度嚴(yán)重、危害巨大。無論影響大小，都沒有理由對(duì)種種能源親此疏彼.無論是核電還是火電，其對(duì)人類的危害都無法確定，這本身就是一大憾事。Oftenneglected,butnolessimportant,isthepublichealthmenacefromtraditionalfuelswidelyusedforcookingandwaterheatinginthedevelopingworldPerhaps80percentofglobalexposuretoparticulateairpollutionoccursindoorsindevelopingcountries，wherethesmokefromprimitivestovesisheavilyladenwithdangeroushydrocarbons.Adisproportionateshareofthisburdenisborne,moreover，bywomen(whodothecooking)andsmallchildren(whoindoorswiththeirmothers).12。發(fā)展中國(guó)家普遍用于做飯燒水的傳統(tǒng)燃料對(duì)大眾健康造成的危害常常不為人們所關(guān)注，但（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯同樣十分嚴(yán)重。全球大約80%的顆粒空氣污染來自發(fā)展中國(guó)家的室內(nèi)燒煮，原始爐灶排出的煙氣中含有大量有害的烴（或碳?xì)浠衔铮疫@種有害物質(zhì)的受害者往往是婦女（室內(nèi)燒煮的主要承擔(dān)者）和兒童（長(zhǎng)時(shí)間同母親一起呆在室內(nèi)）。Theecologicalthreatsposedbyenergysupplyareevenhardertoquantifythanthethreatstohumanhealthandsafetyfromeffluentsandaccidents.Nevertheless,enoughisknowntosuggesttheyportendevenlargerdamagetohumanwell-being.Thisdamagepotentialarisesfromthecombinationoftwocircumstances.13。同排放的廢棄物和能源設(shè)施事故對(duì)大眾健康造成的危害相比，能源利用對(duì)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的威脅更難以量化。然而，根據(jù)已有認(rèn)識(shí)足以判斷這種威脅對(duì)人類健康造成的損失將會(huì)更大。這種潛在的損失是由兩種情形同時(shí)存在導(dǎo)致的First,civilizationdependsheavilyonservicesprovidedbyecologicalandgeophysicalprocessessuchasbuildingandfertilizingsoil,regulatingwatersupply,controllingpestsandpathogens,andmaintainingatolerableclimate;yetitlackstheknowledgeandtheresourcestoreplacenature,sserviceswithtechnology.Second,humanactivitiesarenowclearlycapableofdisruptinggloballytheprocessesthatprovidetheseservices.Energysupply,bothindustrialandtraditional,isresponsibleforastrikingshareoftheenvironmentalimpactsofhumanactivity.Theenvironmentaltransitionofthepast100years-drivenaboveallbya20——foldincreaseinfossil——fueluseandaugmentedbyatriplingintheuseoftraditionalenergyforms一hasamountedtonolessthantheemergenceofcivilizationasaglobalecologicalandgeochemicalforce。14。首先，人類文明嚴(yán)重依賴于各種生態(tài)和地球物理過程所提供的各種服務(wù)，諸如造土培肥（或土壤的形成與增肥）、水源調(diào)節(jié)、病蟲害控制、適宜氣候的維持等等。但是，人類缺乏知識(shí)和資源來利用技術(shù)代替自然界所提供的各種服務(wù).其次，人類活動(dòng)顯然能夠在全球范圍破壞提供這些（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯服務(wù)的進(jìn)程。無論是工業(yè)能源還是傳統(tǒng)能源使用，在人類活動(dòng)引起的環(huán)境問題中均占有很大比重.過去100年以來的環(huán)境巨變（首要驅(qū)動(dòng)因素是化石燃料的使用增長(zhǎng)了20倍，同時(shí)傳統(tǒng)能源的使用增長(zhǎng)了3倍），可以說無異于人類文明作為一支全球范圍內(nèi)的生態(tài)和地球化學(xué)力量的崛起過程.Ofallenvironmentalproblems,themostthreatening，andinmanyrespectsthemostintractable，isglobalclimatechange.Andthegreenhousegasesmostresponsibleforthedangerofrapidclimatechangecomelargelyfromhumanendeavorstoomassive,widespreadandcentraltothefunctioningofoursocietiestobeeasilyaltered：carbondioxide（CO2）fromdeforestationandthecombustionoffossilfuelsmethanefromricepaddies，cattlegustsandtheexploitationofoilandnaturalgasandnitrousoxidesfromfuelcombustionsandfertilizeruse..在諸多環(huán)境問題中，對(duì)人類威脅最大、在許多情況下卻又最讓人類無計(jì)可施的是全球氣候變化。而對(duì)氣候劇變最起作用的溫室氣體主要來自人類活動(dòng)，這些活動(dòng)規(guī)模之大、范圍之廣、對(duì)人類社會(huì)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)作用之大，都無法輕易改變。這些氣體包括：由于毀林和燃燒礦物燃料所造成的二氧化碳，由秸稈、牲畜糞便和使用石油天然氣所排放的甲烷，以及由于燃料燃燒和施肥所排放的一氧化二氮.Theonlyotherexternalcostthatmightmatchthedevastatingimpactofglobalclimatechangeistheriskofcausingoraggravatinglarge-scalemilitaryconflictOnesuchthreatisthepotentialforconflictoveraccesstopetroleumresources。Anotherthreatisthelinkbetweennuclearenergyandthespreadofnuclearweapons.TheissueishardlylesscomplexandcontroversialthanthelinkbetweenCO2andclimate;manyanalysts，includingme,thinkitisthreateningindeedo.其他唯一能同全球氣候變化所造成的災(zāi)難性影響相提并論的外化成本是發(fā)生或惡化大規(guī)模軍事沖突的可能.其中潛在的威脅是為爭(zhēng)奪石油資源而引起的沖突。另一個(gè)威脅則來自核能和核武（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯器擴(kuò)散之間的聯(lián)系，這種聯(lián)系的復(fù)雜性幾乎不亞于二氧化碳和氣候之間的關(guān)系。許多分析家（包括本人）均認(rèn)為這種關(guān)系十分危險(xiǎn)（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯DoTrafficTicketsSaveLives?交通罰單能救命嗎？Pitythepoortrafficcop。He’sthelastguyyouwanttoseeinyourrear-viewmirrorwhenyou'respeedingdownthehighway.Whyisn'theoutlookingformurderersinsteadofnailingdriversforminorinfractionsofthelaw？哎，這可憐的交警。他是你在高速公路上疾馳時(shí)最不愿意在后視鏡里看見的人。他為什么不去抓那些殺人犯，卻在這兒為了一點(diǎn)兒芝麻大的交通違規(guī)對(duì)司機(jī)們窮追不舍？Well，accordingtoamajorresearchprojectbyscientistsinCanadaandCalifornia,thatcopjustmightbesavingyourlife。Orthelifeofsomeoneelse.然而，根據(jù)加拿大和加利福尼亞科學(xué)家們的一項(xiàng)重要研究，那位警察也許恰恰是在救你的命，或者救別的什么人的命。Theresearchershavefoundthatatrafficticketreducesadrive'rschanceofbeinginvolvedinafatalaccidentbyawhopping35percentatleastforafewweeks.Theeffectdoesn'tlastlong,howeveroWithinthreetofourmonths,theleadfootisbackonthepedalandtheriskofkillingyourselforsomeoneelseisbackuptowhereitwasbeforethatcopstaredyouintheeyeandwroteoutthatexpensivecitation.研究者們發(fā)現(xiàn)一張交通罰單能讓司機(jī)至少在幾周內(nèi)遭遇重大車禍的概率降低35%o似是這個(gè)作用不會(huì)持續(xù)很長(zhǎng)。三四個(gè)月后，那只腳又會(huì)回到油門兒上去，置自己或別人于死地的危險(xiǎn)率又和警察瞪著你開出巨額罰單前一樣高了。Thebottomline,accordingtotheresearch,publishedintheJune28issueofTheLancet,isthattrafficticketssavelives.Maybethousandsoflives,everyyear.Yettrafficlawsareenforcedsporadically,almostasifbywhim,partlybecausepeoplejustdon'tliketrafficcops,andtherearelotsofotherthingsforthegovernmenttospendmoneyonthanenforcinghighwaysafetylaws。（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯根據(jù)6月28日發(fā)表在《柳葉刀》上的研究，最根本的一點(diǎn)就是交通罰單能救命，它很可能每年能救成千上萬條命。然而交通法規(guī)只是零星地被實(shí)施，就像心血來潮似的，部分原因是人們不喜歡罰單，而且除了實(shí)施高速公路安全法，政府部門還有很多其他地方要花錢。TheGrimStatistics無情的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)椐Thatattitudeneedstobechanged,accordingtoDonaldA.RedelmeieroftheUniversityofTorontoandRobertJ.TibshiraniofStanfordUniversity.Bothmenaremedicalresearchers,andthisisn'tthefirsttimethey'vetakenahardlookathighwaysafety。Their1998studycausedastirwhentheylinkedcellphoneusagetotrafficaccidentsNowthey'reback,sayingtrafficticketsaregoodforourhealth.多倫多大學(xué)的熱德爾美爾和斯坦福大學(xué)的提波施拉尼認(rèn)為這種態(tài)度需要改變。他們倆都是醫(yī)學(xué)研究者，這已不是他們第一次盯著高速公路安全問題了。他們倆1998年的研究引起了轟動(dòng)，當(dāng)時(shí)他們認(rèn)為打手機(jī)與交通事故有關(guān)聯(lián)。現(xiàn)在他們又來了，說交通罰單對(duì)我們的健康有好處。Theywereproddedintothisprojectbysomeverygrimstatistics.Eachyear,morethanamillionpersonsdieintrafficaccidentsworldwide。IfthatmanypeoplediedofSARSinayear,thepublicresponsewouldprobablyborderonhyster,iabutwehavecometoaccepttrafficfatalitiesasawayoflife.他們之所以參與這個(gè)項(xiàng)目是受到一些殘酷無情的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)的驅(qū)使.每年，全世界有100多萬人死于交通事故.如果一年內(nèi)那么多人死于非典的話，大家很可能會(huì)恐懼得發(fā)瘋了，然而我們對(duì)交通事故死亡率卻習(xí)以為常了。Inaddition,another25millionpeoplearoundtheworldarepermanentlydisabledbytrafficaccidents,andmanyofthem——aswellasthefatalities——arechildren.另外，還有2500萬人因交通事故永遠(yuǎn)殘廢了，而且他們當(dāng)中（包括死去的）很多是孩子。TakingItEasyAfteraTicket?（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯接到罰中處之泰然？WhenRedelmeierandTibshiraniandfellowresearcherLeonardEvanssetouttoseeiftrafficticketsreallydoanygood,theyfoundanenormousresourceintheCanadianprovinceofOntario。Thefulldrivingrecordofeverylicenseddrivertherewasmadeavailabletothem，wartsandall,givingtheresearchersahugedatabaseofmorethan10millionlicenseddrivers，8,975ofwhomwereinvolvedinafatalaccidentduringthe11-yearperiodcoveredbytheresearch,from1988through1998。當(dāng)熱德爾美爾、提波施拉尼和他們的共同研究人員倫納德 伊凡斯研究交通罰單是否真能起到好作用時(shí)，他們?cè)诩幽么蟮陌泊舐允“l(fā)現(xiàn)了數(shù)量巨大的司機(jī)資料.他們?cè)谀莾耗芸吹矫總€(gè)有駕照的人的全部記錄，這樣他們就有了一個(gè)良莠俱存的超過一千萬個(gè)持照司機(jī)的巨大數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)。其中8975個(gè)司機(jī)在此項(xiàng)研究覆蓋的1988—1998共11年中曾出過重大交通事故“Welookedatthemonthpriortoafatalaccident，andthenumberoftrafficconvictions,andthenthesamemonthintheyearbefore,”saysTibshirani,astatistician。"Whatwefoundwasthattherewerefewerticketsinthemonthbeforeafatalaccidentthantherewereayearbefore,andthatsuggeststhere,saprotectiveeffectofhavingaticketo”統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)家提波施拉尼說：“我們看了一下出重大事故前一個(gè)月的交通罰單數(shù)和前一年同一個(gè)月的罰單數(shù)，發(fā)現(xiàn)出重大事故前一個(gè)月的罰單要比前一年同一個(gè)月的罰單少，這說明罰單有保護(hù)作用。”Inotherwords,whenthenumberofcitationswentdown,thenumberoffatalaccidentswentupthefollowingmonth,andwhenthenumberofticketswentup,thenumberoffatalaccidentsdroppedthefollowingmonth。Theanalysisshowsthatfatalaccidentsdeclinedby35percentbecauseofcitations。換言之，當(dāng)罰單數(shù)下降時(shí)，重大事故率在接下來這個(gè)月就會(huì)上升；而當(dāng)罰單數(shù)上升時(shí)，重大事故(完整word版)學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯率在接下來這個(gè)月就會(huì)下降。分析表明罰單能使重大事故率下降35%。Apparently,peoplejustdrovemorecautiouslyfollowingatrafficcitation,butthatonlylastedamaximumoffourmonths,theresearcherssayAfterthatbriefrespite,itwasbacktobusinessasusualformostmotorists.顯然，人們?cè)谀玫浇煌P單后開車會(huì)更謹(jǐn)慎，但這種謹(jǐn)慎最長(zhǎng)只會(huì)持續(xù)4個(gè)月。對(duì)多數(shù)司機(jī)來說，經(jīng)過這短暫的歇息，一切又都恢復(fù)到從前了。Citations'EffectsConsistent罰單的持續(xù)作用Thescientistsalsoturnedupsomesurprisingresultso科學(xué)家們還出示了一些令人吃驚的研究結(jié)果。“Mostofthecrashesdidnotinvolvealcoholandwerenotatanintersection'theyreportintheirresearchpaper.Mostoccurredduringthesummermonthswhenthestreetsweredry(65percent)ratherthanwet(18percent)orcoveredwithsnow(17percent).“多數(shù)撞車不是因?yàn)榫坪篑{車，也不是發(fā)生在十字路口，”他們?cè)谘芯繄?bào)告中這樣報(bào)道.多數(shù)事故發(fā)生在夏季，當(dāng)時(shí)的道路干燥(65%)而不濕滑(18%),也沒有雪覆蓋(17%)。Theyalsofoundthatthe"relativeriskreductionassociatedwithtrafficconvictionswasremarkablyconsistentamongsubgroupsoflicenseddrivers,”sothesameresultsapplytowomenaswellasmen,regardlessofage,priordrivingrecord,andotherpersonaldata.他們還發(fā)現(xiàn)“在有駕照的那組司機(jī)中拿到罰單后的事故減少率的持續(xù)性是顯著的“，因此同樣的結(jié)論適用于婦女和男人，而與年齡因素、以前的駕駛記錄和其他個(gè)人資料無關(guān)。Men,however,wereinvolvedinfarmorefatalaccidentsthanwomen(73percentto27percent)andthemostaccident-proneagewasbetween30and50。Alcoholwasdetectedinonly7percentoftheaccidents.（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯但是，男人要比女人更容易出嚴(yán)重交通事故（73%比27%）,而且最容易出事故的年齡是在30—50歲之間。酒后駕車只占事故的7%。Theresearchersalsoaddressedthecommonlyheldbeliefthattrafficcitationscausemoreaccidentsthantheypreventbecausesomanypeoplearekilledduringpolicechases。Theyfoundthatonly24deathscouldbelinkedtowritingcitationsduringthe11-yearperiod.Thatincluded17suspects,fivebystandersandtwopoliceofficers."Thetypicalsuspectwhodiedwasa26-year-oldmanpursuedbypoliceafterfleeingaspotcheckforalcoholoraspeedingviolation,”theyreport.Thetwopoliceofficerswerekilledinseparateeventswhentheywerehitbyacarwhilewritingaticketforanothermotorist。研究者們還澄清了一種普遍的想法：交通罰單引起的交通事故比防止的多，因?yàn)楹芏嗳耸窃诰熳匪麄儠r(shí)喪生的.他們發(fā)現(xiàn)在過去的11年中只有24起死亡事故和罰單有關(guān)，這包括17個(gè)被追的司機(jī)、5個(gè)路人和2位警察。“最典型的一例是一個(gè)26歲的男子，因想逃避酒精和超速違規(guī)的現(xiàn)場(chǎng)檢查而被警察窮追不舍，”他們報(bào)告說.有2位警察死于與這互不相關(guān)的事件中，當(dāng)時(shí)他們正在給另一個(gè)摩托車駕駛員開罰單。WhoReallyPays?到底誰付出代價(jià)？Theresearchersadmitthereareafewgapsintheirfindings.ThestatisticsdonotincludeOntariodriverswhomayhavebeeninvolvedinafatalaccidentsomewhereoutsidethatprovince.Norcantheysaythateverytrafficticketleadstoareductioninaccidents.Butthestatisticssuggestacorrelationbetweenthenumberofcitationsandthenumberoffatalities。研究者們承認(rèn)在他們的研究中有一些漏洞.統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字不包括有可能在省外某地出嚴(yán)重交通事故的安大略省司機(jī)。他們也不能說每張交通罰單都能降低事故率.但是數(shù)據(jù)顯示交通罰單的數(shù)量和（完整word版）學(xué)術(shù)綜合英語1-6課課文及翻譯死亡率之間呈相關(guān)性.Theyalsopointoutthattheinnocentareoftenmadetopaythepriceforcarelessdrivers.他們還指出為粗心大意的司機(jī)付出代價(jià)的經(jīng)常是那些無辜受害者。"Unlikeothercommondiseases，thevictimsareoftenyoungandneedsignificantsubsequentcarefordecades.Mostcrashesareunintendedunex