1、Chapter 50An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere (生態學及生物圈之介紹)Key Concepts(根本觀念)50.1: Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and the environment.(生態學是研討生物與環境間之互動)50.2: Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species.(生物與環境間之互動限制物種之分佈)50.3: Ab

2、iotic and biotic factors influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic biomes.(非生物與生物因子影響水生生物之結構與動態)50.4: Climate largely determines the distribution and structure of terrestrial biomes.(氣候決定陸生生物之結構與分佈)Overview: The Scope of Ecology (生態學的範疇)Overview: The Scope of EcologyEcology(生態學)Is the scientif

3、ic study of the interactions(互動) between organisms and the environmentThese interactions (互動) Determine both the distribution(分佈) of organisms and their abundance(豐度)Ecology (生態學)Is an enormously complex and exciting area of biology.Reveals the richness of the biosphere (生物圈).Figure 50.1. The richne

4、ss of the biosphere evident in one area of a Panamanian forest.Concept 50.1: Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and the environmentEcology (生態學)Has a long history as a descriptive science(描畫性科學)Is also a rigorous experimental science(實驗性科學)Is an integrative biology(整合性生物學).Organi

5、sms and the Environment (生物與環境)The environment of any organism includesAbiotic(非生物性), or nonliving components: temperature, sunlight, water and nutrient.Biotic (生物性), or living components: other organisms.All the organisms living in the environment, the biota (生物相)(Biota, biomass, biomes)Ecology and

6、 Evolutionary Biology (演化生物學)Events that occur in ecological timeAffect life on the scale of evolutionary time.Environmental components(環境成份、組成)Affect the distribution and abundance of organisms (影響生物的分佈與豐度).Figure 50.2. Distribution and abundance of the red kangaroo in Australia, based on aerial su

7、rvey.Kangaroos/km2 201020510150.11 0.1Limits ofdistributionClimate in northern Australiais hot and wet, with seasonaldrought.Red kangaroosoccur in mostsemiarid and aridregions of theinterior, whereprecipitation isrelatively low andvariable fromyear to year.Southeastern Australiahas a wet, cool clima

8、te.Southern Australia hascool, moist winters andwarm, dry summers.TasmaniaEcologists(生態學家)Scientist or biologist using observations (觀察) and experiments to test explanations (解釋) for the distribution (分佈) and abundance (豐度) of species.Subfields of Ecology (生態學之次領域)Organismal ecology (個體生態學)-Studies

9、how an organisms structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet the challenges posed by the environment.Figure 50.3a. Organismal ecology. How do humpback whales select their calving areas?Population ecology (族群生態學)Concentrates mainly on factors (因子) that affect how many individuals of a part

10、icular species live in an area.Figure 50.3b.Population ecology.What environmentalfactors affect thereproductive rate ofdeer mice?Community ecology (群聚生態學)Deals with the whole array of interacting species in a community.Figure 50.3c Community ecology.What factors influencethe diversity of species(種的歧

11、異度) that make up a particular forest?Ecosystem ecology (生態系生態學)Emphasizes energy flow (能量流) and chemical cycling (化學循環) among the various biotic and abiotic components (非生物與生物組成).Figure 50.3dEcosystem ecology. What factors control photosynthetic productivity in a temperate grassland ecosystem (草原生態系

12、)?Landscape ecology(景觀生態學)Deals with arrays of ecosystems and how they are arranged in a geographic region(地理位置).Figure 50.3e. Landscape ecology. To what extent do the trees lining the drainage channels in this landscape serve as corridors of dispersal for forest animals?The biosphere (生物圈)-Is the g

13、lobal ecosystem, the sum of all the planets ecosystems.(全球生態系是地球一切生態系的總和)-The Earth is the Biosphere 1. (地球是生物圈一號)生物圈二號(Biosphere 2) 定名為生物圈2號，是因為這是模擬第一個生物圈地球的生態交流所建的第二個生物圈 。亦即地球是生物圈1號。 生物圈2號建於亞利桑納州的奧拉克爾，金主是德州富豪巴斯，佔地三點一英畝，約五層樓高，是以玻璃和鋼筋與外界隔絕的密閉溫室。 裡面經人工規劃成熱帶雨林、熱帶大草原、沼澤、沙漠以及海洋等五種自然環境，擁有千餘種昆蟲、鳥類、動物及魚類，以

14、提供8名研討人員不假外界援助而得獨立生活的自足生活系統，不幸結果卻演變成充滿二氧化碳和氮氣的惡地，藤蔓叢生，蟑螂、螞蟻和螽斯橫行。生物圈2號內各個組成部分及結構參數區域面積(m2)體積(m3)土壤(m3)水分(m3)大氣(m3)集約農業區20003800027206035220居住區區1000110002110997熱帶雨林200035000600010028900熱帶草原/海洋/沼澤2500490004000340041600沙漠140022000400040017600西肺1800150000015000南肺180015750075015000註:上述兩“肺的體積僅為止其完全膨漲的50%

15、Ecology and Environmental IssuesEcologyProvides the scientific understanding underlying environmental issuesRachel CarsonIs credited with starting the modern environmental movement.Figure 50.4Most ecologists follow the precautionary principle regarding environmental issues.The precautionary principl

16、e (預警原理/準則)Basically states that humans need to be concerned with how their actions affect the environment.報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？Concept 50.2: Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of speciesEcologistsHave long recognized global and regional patterns of distribution

17、 of organisms within the biosphere Many naturalists (自然學家)Began to identify broad patterns of distribution by naming biogeographic realms (生物地理範圍)Tropicof Cancer(23.5N)EquatorNearcticNeotropicalEthiopianOrientalAustralianPalearctic(23.5S)Tropic ofCapricornFigure 50.5新北極區舊北極區東方區新熱帶區衣索比亞區澳大利亞區Biogeogr

18、aphy (生物地理學)Provides a good starting point for understanding what limits the geographic distribution of speciesFigure 50.6Species absentbecauseYesNoDispersallimitsdistribution?Behaviorlimitsdistribution?Biotic factors(other species)limitdistribution?Abiotic factorslimitdistribution?YesNoYesNoArea in

19、accessibleor insufficient timeHabitat selectionPredation, parasitism,competition, diseaseWaterOxygenSalinitypHSoil nutrients,etc.TemperatureLightSoil structureFireMoisture, etc.ChemicalfactorsPhysicalfactorsDispersal and Distribution (散佈與分佈)Dispersal (散佈)Is the movement of individuals away from cent

20、ers of high population density or from their area of originContributes to the global distribution of organismsNew areasoccupiedYear199619891974Natural Range ExpansionsShow the influence of dispersal on distribution.Figure 50.7. Spread of breeding populations of the great-tailed grackle (長尾白頭翁) in th

21、e USA from 1974 to 1996. The grackle expanded its breeding range substantially in just 22 years. Species Transplants (物種轉移)Species transplantsInclude organisms that are intentionally (有目的地/有意地) or accidentally (不測地/無意地) relocated (重新定位/位移) from their original distributionCan often disrupt the commun

22、ities or ecosystems to which they have been introducedBehavior and Habitat SelectionSome organismsDo not occupy all of their potential rangeSpecies distributionMay be limited by habitat selection behavior報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？Biotic Factors (生物因子)Biotic factors that affect the distribution of organism

23、s may includeInteractions with other species (種間互動)Predation (捕食作用)Competition (競爭作用)A specific case of an herbivore limiting distribution of a food species: Removal and AdditionFigure 50.8W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed abundance ne

24、ar Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed.EXPERIMENTRESULTSFletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.100806040200Limpet帽貝Seaurchin海膽Both limpetsand urchinsremovedOnly urchin

25、sremovedOnly limpets removedAugust1982February1983August1983February1984Control (bothurchins andlimpets present)Seaweed cover (%)Removing bothlimpets and urchins orremoving only urchins increased seaweed cover dramatically.Almost no seaweed grew in areas whereboth urchins andlimpets were present, or

26、 where only limpets were removed. Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating that bothspecies have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased seaweed growth while removing only limpets had little eff

27、ect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much greater effect than limpets in limiting seaweed distribution.CONCLUSION海草覆蓋度Abiotic Factors (非生物因子)Abiotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms may includeTemperature (溫度)Water (水)Sunlight (日光)Wind (風)Rocks and soil (巖石與土壤)Temperature

28、Environmental temperatureIs an important factor in the distribution of organisms because of its effects on biological processesWaterWater availability among habitatsIs another important factor in species distributionSunlightLight intensity and qualityCan affect photosynthesis in ecosystemsLight Is a

29、lso important to the development and behavior of organisms sensitive to the photoperiod (光週期)WindWindAmplifies the effects of temperature on organisms by increasing heat loss due to evaporation (蒸發作用) and convection (對流)Can change the morphology of plantsFigure 50.9Rocks and SoilMany characteristics

30、 of soil limit the distribution of plants and thus the animals that feed upon themPhysical structure (物理結構)pH (酸鹼度)Mineral composition (礦物組成)ClimateFour major abiotic components make up climateTemperature, water, sunlight, and windClimateIs the prevailing (盛行的/流行的) weather conditions in a particular

31、 areaMacroclimate and microclimate (巨氣候與微氣候)Climate patterns can be described on two scalesMacroclimate (巨氣候), patterns on the global, regional, and local levelMicroclimate (微氣候), very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms underneath a fallen logGlobal Climate Patter

32、nsEarths global climate patternsAre determined largely by the input of solar energy and the planets movement in spaceSunlight intensity plays a major part in determining the Earths climate patternsFigure 50.10. Latitudinal variation and sunlight intensityLow angle of incoming sunlightSunlight direct

33、ly overheadLow angle of incoming sunlightNorth Pole60N30NTropic of Cancer0 (equator)30S60SAtmosphereTropic of CapricornSouth poleLatitudinal variation in sunlight intensity低角度的入射日光低角度的入射日光日光正位於頭頂上方南極北極Figure 50.10June solstice: NorthernHemisphere tilts toward sun; summer begins in Northern Hemispher

34、e; winter begins inSouthern Hemisphere.March equinox: Equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on Earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness.60N30N0 (equator)30SConstant tiltof 23.5September equinox: Equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts tow

35、ard sun; all regions on Earth experience 12 hours ofdaylight and 12 hours of darkness.December solstice: Northern Hemisphere tilts away from sun; winter begins in Northern Hemisphere; summer begins in Southern Hemisphere.Seasonal variation in sunlight intensity六月夏至十二月冬至三月春分九月秋分地球因其軸的傾斜呵斥溫度與光強度隨地球環繞太

36、陽而週期性變化Global air circulation and precipitation patternsAir circulation and wind patterns play major parts in determining the Earths climate patternsDescendingdry airabsorbsmoistureAscendingmoist airreleasesmoistureDescendingdry airabsorbsmoisture3023.5023.530Arid zoneTropics60N30N0 (equator)30S60SF

37、igure 50.10Arid zone乾燥區乾燥區熱帶區下降的乾空氣吸收水氣下降的乾空氣吸收水氣上升的溼空氣釋出水氣接近赤道的空氣循環與降雨全球氣流循環因加熱而移動的空氣在赤道兩側產生三個主要的空氣循環，在每一個循環胞內，上升的空氣質(藍色)以降雨方式釋出水氣，而下降的空氣(褐色)則吸收水氣，產生乾燥的環境。Global air circulation and precipitation patternsGLOBAL WIND PATTERNS 全球風型式Figure 50.10WesterliesNortheast tradesDoldrumsSoutheast tradesWesterl

38、iesAntarcticCircle 南極圈60S30S0(equator)30N60NArcticCircle 北極圈西風帶東北季風赤道無風帶東南季風西風帶Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on ClimateVarious features of the landscapeContribute to local variations in climateBodies of WaterOceans and their currents, and large lakes moderate the climate of nearby terrestria

39、l environmentsFigure 50.11. Moderating effects of large bodies of water on climate. This figure illustrates what happens on a warm summer day.3. Coolerair sinksover water2. Air cools athigh elevation.1. Warm airover land rises.4. Cool air over watermoves inland, replacingrising warm air over land.Mo

40、untains have a significant effect onThe amount of sunlight reaching an areaLocal temperatureRainfallMountains2. Farther inland, precipitationincreases again as the airmoves up and over highermountains. Some of the worldsdeepest snow packs occur here.Figure 50.12. How mountains affect rainfall.3. On

41、the eastern side of theSierra Nevada, there is littleprecipitation. As a result ofthis rain shadow, much ofcentral Nevada is desert.1. As moist air moves in off the Pacific Ocean and encounters the westernmost mountains, it flows upward, cools at higher altitudes, and drops a large amount of water.

42、The worlds tallest trees, the coastal redwoods, thrive here.EastPacificOceanWinddirectionCoastRangeSierraNevada風向海岸山脈Seasonality (季節性)The angle of the sun (太陽角度)Leads to many seasonal changes in local environmentsLakes are sensitive to seasonal temperature change and Experience seasonal turnover (季節

43、性翻轉)Seasonal turnover in lakes with winter ice coverFigure 50.13. Seasonal turnover in lakes with winter ice cover2. In spring, as the sun melts the ice, the surface water warms to 4C and sinks below the cooler layers immediately below, eliminating the thermal stratification. Spring winds mix the wa

44、ter to great depth, bringing oxygen (O2) to the bottom waters (see graphs) and nutrients to the surface.1. In winter, the coldest water in the lake (0C) lies justbelow the surface ice; water is progressively warmer atdeeper levels of the lake, typically 45C at the bottom.4. In autumn, as surface wat

45、er cools rapidly, it sinks below the underlying layers, remixing the water until the surface begins to freeze and the winter temperature profile is reestablished.3. In summer, the lake regains a distinctive thermal profile, with warm surface water separated from cold bottom water by a narrowvertical

46、 zone of rapid temperature change, called a thermocline.WinterSpringHighMediumLowO2 concentrationO2 (mg/L)Lake depth (m)048128162481624Lake depth (m)O2 (mg/L)O2 (mg/L)Lake depth (m)0481281624O2 (mg/L)Lake depth (m)0481281624AutumnSummer4C444444C444204C444444C681820225Thermocline04812Microclimate (微氣

47、候)MicroclimateIs determined by fine-scale differences in abiotic factorsLong-Term Climate Change (長期氣候變遷)One way to predict future global climate change.Is to look back at the changes that occurred previouslyFigure 50.14. Current range and predicted range for the American beech under two scenarios o

48、f climate change.Current rangePredicted rangeOverlap(a) 4.5C warming overnext century(b) 6.5C warming overnext century報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？Concept 50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic biomes (水域生物相)Varying combinations of both biotic and abiotic factorsDete

49、rmine the nature of Earths many biomesBiomes (生物相、生物群落、生物群域)Are the major types of ecological associations that occupy broad geographic regions of land or waterThe distribution of major aquatic biomesThe examination of biomes (生物相) will begin with Earths aquatic biomesFigure 50.1530NTropic of Cancer

50、Equator30SContinentalshelfLakesCoral reefsRiversOceanic pelagiczoneEstuariesIntertidal zoneAbyssal zone(below oceanicpelagic zone)深海區KeyTropic of CapricornAquatic biomes (水域生物相)Account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of areaCan contain fresh or salt water (淡水或鹹水)OceansCover about 75%

51、of Earths surfaceHave an enormous impact on the biosphereStratification of aquatic biomes (水域生物相的分層)Many aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or layers defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth(b) Marine zonation. Like lakes, the marine environment is generally classified on the basis

52、 of light penetration (photic and aphotic zones), distance from shore and water depth (intertidal, neritic, and oceanic zones), and whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic and abyssal zones).(a) Zonation in a lake. The lake environment is generally classified on the basis of three

53、 physical criteria: light penetration (photic and aphotic zones), distance from shore and water depth (littoral and limnetic zones), and whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic zone).Figure 50.16a, bLittoral zone延岸區Limnetic zone 湖沼區PhoticzoneBenthiczoneAphoticzonePelagiczone潮間帶Int

54、ertidal zoneNeritic zoneOceanic zone0200 mContinentalshelfPhotic zonePelagic zoneAphoticzoneBenthiczone2,5006,000 m深海區Abyssal zone(deepest regions of ocean floor)透光區底棲區無光區遠洋區湖泊的分層海洋的分層Lakes (湖泊)Figure 50.17An oligotrophic lake (貧養湖) in Grand Teton, Wyoming A eutrophic lake (優養湖) in Okavango delta, B

55、otswanaLAKESWetlands (溼地)Figure 50.17. Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in GeorgiaStreams and rivers (溪流與河川)Figure 50.17A headwater stream in theGreat Smoky MountainsThe Mississippi River farform its headwatersEstuaries (河口)Figure 50.17. An estuary in a low coastal plain of GeorgiaIntertidal zone

56、s (潮間帶)Figure 50.17. Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coastOceanic pelagic biome (大洋區生物相)Figure 50.17. Open ocean off the island of HawaiiCoral reefs (珊瑚礁)Figure 50.17. A coral reef in the Red SeaMarine benthic zone (底棲區)Figure 50.17. A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community深海噴泉群落報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？Concept 50.4: Climate largely determines the distr