1、Unit 11. A full appreciation of the physiology of a living organism must be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Anatomy does not merely study the separation of parts, but the accurate description of the morphologies and functions of different organs.2. Our daily food intake must match require

2、ments and any excess must be excreted for balance to be maintained.3. The process of stabilization of the internal environment is called homeostasis and is essential if the cells of the body are to function normally.4. Human cells have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones tolibe

3、rate sufficient energy for their activities.5. As long as normal conditions are maintained in this internal environment, the cells of the body continue to live and function properly.1 . 對生物生理學的全面了解必須基于解剖學的系統知識。解剖學不僅僅是研究人體各部分的分離，還要準確的描述各個器官的形態和生理功能。2 .我們每天攝入的事物必須滿足需要，任何多余的東西必須排出體外才能維持平衡。3 .內環境穩定的過程稱之

4、為體內平衡，體內平衡也是機體的細胞正常發揮作用所必不可少的。4 .人類細胞有將大分子分解成小分子的能力，從而為自身活動釋放足夠的能量。5 . 只要這種內環境正常的條件得以維持，機體的細胞就能繼續生存并發揮正常功能。Unit 21. Biochemistry asks how the thousands of different biomolecules interact with each other to confer the remarkable properties of living organisms.2. Enzymes are catalysts that accelerate

5、the rates of biological reactions. Each enzyme is very specific in its function and acts only in a particular metabolic reaction.3. One of the most fruitful approaches to understand biological phenomena has been to purify an individual chemical component, such as a protein, from a living organism an

6、d to characterize its chemical structure or catalytic activity.4. The chemical principles that govern the properties of biological molecules include the covalent bonding of carbon with itself and with other elements and the functional groups that appear in common biological molecules, etc.5. The bas

7、ic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of four different monomeric subunits, deoxyribonucleotides, arranged in a precise linear sequence.1. 生物化學探尋的是數千種不同的生物分子如何相互作用，以賦予生物體具備顯著的特性。2. 酶是能加速生物學反應速率的催化劑。每一種酶都有專一的功能并且僅在特定代謝反應中發揮作用。3. 用以了解生物學現象的最有效的方法之一是從生物體中純化出單一化學成分，例如蛋白質，并對其化學結構或催化活性進行表征。4. 決定生物分子特性的化學原理包括

8、碳與自身或其他元素的共價結合和一般生物分子中出現的功能基團等。5. 脫氧核糖核酸的基本單位是由四種不同的脫氧核糖核苷酸單一亞單位以精確的線性序列進行排列而構成的線性聚合物。Unit 31. Although the existence of microbes was determined almost three hundred years ago, the study of microbiology is only getting started compared with zoology and botany.2.In ancient times, the existence of mic

9、robes was hypothesized and they might be the responsibleagent of diseases, which was pure speculation碓斷）as there was no microscope at the time.3. The first one who suggested taxonomic classification份類法）of bacteria and discovered spores is Ferdinand Cohn, a botanist who studied algae and photosynthet

10、ic bacteria. He established bacteriology.4. Microbes may be tiny, but the field of microbiology is relatively huge, which encompasses many subdisciplines affecting peopl e s life and health a lot.5. Some of microbes may cause diseases but not all microbes are detriment, such as some of them used in

11、industrial fermentation（發酵）to make wine and vinegar 酉S）.1. 盡管三百年前人們就確定世界上存在微生物，但與動物學和植物學相比，微生物學研究 還只是剛剛開始。2. 在古代, 人們認為有微生物存在而且微生物可能是傳染病的致病原，但當時沒有顯微鏡，所以這一切純屬猜測。3. 第一位提出對細菌分類和發現抱子的人是植物學家費南科恩，他對藻類和光合細菌進行 了研究，創建了細菌學。4. 微生物體積雖小，但微生物學領域卻很大，其中包括很多分支學科，對人類生活和健康 產生了重大影響。5. 有些微生物能引發疾病，但不是所有的微生物都是有害的，如一些微生物可用于

12、工業發 酵，制作酒和醋等。Unit 41. The science of the effects of drugs on the body is called pharmacology, and the scientists who study it are pharmacologists. Pharmacology is not a science that can be studied on its own, but that closely related to other branches of science. Pharmacologists should not only unde

13、rstand the normal process that take place in the body, but know how the functions of the body are affected by disease.2. For physicians and medical students, the scope of pharmacology is not so expansive as its common definition. The clinician is interested primarily in drugs that are useful in the

14、prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human disease, or in the prevention of pregnancy.3. All physicians should share the responsibility to resolve kinds of sociological problems caused by the abuse of drugs, properly used, drugs are great blessing to mankind; improperly used, they could destroy h

15、uman race. When a patient, particularly the elderly is prescribed frequently to take more than one therapeutic agent, drug interactions resulting in toxicity will occur.4. At one time, it was essential for the physician to have broad botanical knowledge, because they had to possess the ability and s

16、kill to select proper plants from which to prepare his own crude medicinal preparations.5. The study of biochemical and physiological effects of drugs and their mechanisms of action is termed as pharmacodynamics, whose uniqueness lies mainly in that its attention is focused on the characteristics of

17、 the drug. As a broader science, it borrows freely from both the theories and experimental techniques of the drug. As a broader science, it borrows freely from both the theories and experimental techniques of physiology, biochemistry, immunology, and pathology.1. 研究藥物作用于人體的科學叫藥理學，研究這門學問的科學家便是藥理學家。藥理

18、學不是一門能夠獨立研究的科學，而是與其它學科緊密相關的。藥理學家不僅要了解人體內進行的正常反應過程，還應懂得機體功能是怎樣受疾病影響的。2. 醫生和醫學生對藥理學的理解和要求沒有其定義范疇那么廣泛。臨床醫生的主要興趣在于藥物對人類疾病的預防、診斷及治療，或者在避孕方面所起的作用。3. 所有醫生都應該負起責任解決藥品濫用所引起的各種社會問題。藥物用得恰當，將是人類的一大福音，用得不當，則可能毀了人類。病人（特別是老年病人）經常性使用一種以上治療藥物的話，往往會發生產生毒性藥物的相互作用。4. 以前， 醫師必須具備很廣泛的植物學知識，因為他要懂得挑選適當的植物的能力和技巧，并將它們制備成簡單的藥物

19、制劑。5. 對藥物的生化生理作用及其活性機制的研究叫做藥效學，該學科的獨到之處主要在于其關注的要點是藥物的特征。藥效學作為一門邊緣學科，大量借鑒了生理學、生物化學、免疫學、病理學等學科的理論和實驗技術。Unit 51. To fight against disease, the immune system generates proteins known as antibodies that bind to invading organisms. But the real case is that the immune system is not to develop a specialize

20、d antibody each time it is faced with a new pathogen. In fact, the immune system select the most effective one by mass screening of its antibody repertoire, thus identifying the ones that work best.2. In a process called combinatorial chemistry, chemists generate a large number of related compounds

21、and then screen the collection for the ones that could have medicinal value.3. In a parallel synthesis, chemists often use a so-called microtiter plate to assemble all the products separately in their own reaction vessels.4. A parallel synthesis and a split-and-mix synthesis are different with that

22、in a parallel synthesis, all the products are assembled separately in their own reaction containers, while in a split-and-mix synthesis, the related compounds are mixed up in the same reaction vessel, which reduces the number of containers required.5. At the end of a split-and-mix synthesis, all the

23、 molecules attached to a single bead are found to be of the same structure. Chemists pull out from the mixture the beads that bear biologically active molecules and then, use sensitive detection techniques to determine the molecular makeup of the compound attached.1. 為了對抗疾病，免疫系統生成了被稱為抗體的蛋白質，它們附著于入侵細

24、菌。但實際情況是免疫系統并不能在每次面對一個新的病原體時都制造出一種特殊的抗體；實際上， 免疫系統是通過對其抗體庫的大規模篩選而確定最有效的抗體。2. 在一種被稱為“組合化學”的過程中，化學家們首先生成很多相關化合物，然后對它們進行篩選，來找到那些可能具有藥用價值的化合物。3. 在平行合成中，化學家們常常利用所謂的微量滴定盤將所有的產物都在其各自的反應容 器中結集。4. 平行合成和分裂混合合成的不同在于, 在平行合成中每個化合物都留在自己的反應器中，而在分裂混合合成中，相關化合物都混合在同一容器中，這種方法極大地減少了所需容器的數量。5. 在分裂混合合成過程結束時，可以發現所有附著于一個小珠上

25、的分子結構都一樣。化學家們從混合物中分離出具有生物活性分子的小珠, 然后利用靈敏的探測技術來確定附著的化合物的分子結構。Units 61. Plant natural products have had, and continue to have, an important role as medicinal and pharmaceutical agents, not only as purified isolates and extractives, but also as lead compounds for synthetic optimization.2. Plant seconda

26、ry metabolites also show promise for cancer chemoprevention, which has been defined as “ the use of n-coyntotoxic nutrients for pharmacological agents to enhance intrinsic physiological mechanisms that protect the organism against mutant clones of malignant cells ”.3. Nevertheless, the vast majority

27、 of the world s quarter of a million plant species has not been evaluated in pharmaceutical screens, and the small percentage that has been tested has generally been screened for activity against only a few therapeutic targets.4. Although many sampling programs designed to generate large numbers of

28、samples for high-throughput screening programs have been characterized as random, it has been shown that they are neither truly random nor haphazard, but that sampling occurs without preconceived selection of species.5. Three main research approaches are used in drug discovery and development proces

29、ses: (1) bioactivity or mechanism of action-directed isolation and characterization of active compounds, (2) rational drug design-based modification and analog synthesis, and (3) mechanism of action studies.1 . 植物天然產物已經并繼續擁有作為醫藥和藥劑的重要作用，不僅是純化的分離物提取物，而且作為合成優化的先導化合物。2 .植物次生代謝產物也有希望用于腫瘤化學預防，即“利用無細胞毒營養物

30、或藥物增強內在生理機制以保護有機體，防止惡性腫瘤細胞的突變復制。3 .然而，世界上25 萬種植物的絕大部分還沒有進行藥物篩選評價，一小部分已經進行測試的也只是對很少幾種治療靶標進行了活性篩選。4 .盡管許多產生大量用于高通量篩選的樣品的采樣程序已經具有隨機的特征，但是已有結果表明他們并不是隨機的，也不是任意的，除非采樣是在沒有先入為主的種類選擇下進行的。5 .在藥物發現和開發程序中應用的三種主要思路是：生物活性或作用機制為導向的分離及活性化合物的鑒定，基于修飾或類似物合成的合理藥物設計，作用機制研究。Unit 71. Absorption is the process of a drug en

31、tering systemic circulation from its site of administration. Except direct injection into the blood vessels, other routes of administration involve the transport of cell membrane.2. Drug absorption, especially those orally administered drugs, depends on many factors, such as the intrinsic characteri

32、stics of the drug, dosage form, food, patient age and the like.3. The distribution of a drug in the body is uneven and is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, that is, it changes constantly with the absorption and elimination of the drug.4. After a drug enters the blood, it will more or less bind to p

33、lasma protein, but this binding is loose and reversible, and is always in a state of equilibrium.5. Bioavailability is the relative quantity and rate of drugs with different dosage forms which are absorbed and reach the systemic circulation; it is concerned with the intensity and speed of drug actio

34、n.1. 吸收是藥物自用藥部位進入血液循環的過程。除直接注入血管者外，一般的給藥方法都要經過細胞膜的轉運。2. 很多因素都可以影響藥物的吸收,特別是口服藥物的吸收，如藥物本身的性質，劑型， 食物，患者年齡等。3. 藥物在體內的分布多數是不均勻的，且處于動態平衡狀態中，即隨藥物的吸收與排泄不斷地變化著。4. 藥物進入血液后或多或少地將與血漿蛋白結合，但這種結合是疏松的，可逆的，經常處于動態平衡。5. 生物利用度是指不同劑型的藥物能吸收進入體循環的相對份量及速度。它與藥物作用的 強度與速度有關。Unit 81. Analytical chemistry aims to resolve two qu

35、estions: what it is and how much it is, that is qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis is to identify the elements, ions and compounds contained in a sample while quantitative analysis is to determine the exact quantity.2. Analytical chemistry has expanded beyond the bo

36、unds of just chemistry, and many have advocated using the name analytical science to describe the field. Even this term falls short of recognition of the role of instrumentation development and applications. One suggestion is that we use the term analytical science and technology.3. Analytical chemi

37、sts work to improve the reliability of existing techniques to meet the demands for better chemical measurements which arise constantly in our society. They adopt proven methodologies to new kinds of materials or to answer new questions about their composition and their reactivity mechanisms.4. Quali

38、tative tests may be performed by selective chemical reactions or with the use of instrumentation. For example, the formation of a white precipitate when adding a solution of silver nitrate to a dissolved sample indicates the presence of chloride. Infrared spectra will give “ fingerprints” of organic

39、 compounds of their functional groups.5. The first phase in the testing of banned substances is called fast-screening phase, in which qualitative analysis such as GC or LC is adopted to test suspicious samples. In the second phase, GC-MS is employed for further testing of those suspicious samples. F

40、inally, spectrophotometry or GC is applied for accurate quantification.1. 分析化學的核心任務在于解決兩個問題：一個是有什么；另一個是有多少，也就是定性分析和定量分析。定性分析是指鑒別所含的物質而定量分析是測定物質的準確含量。2. 分析化學的發展已經超出了化學的邊界，因此有人提議用分析科學來描述這個領域。但是，該名詞忽視了儀器發展和應用的作用，有人建議使用“分析科學和技術”這一名詞。3. 分析化學家致力于提高已有技術的可靠性以更好的滿足社會中頻繁出現的化學檢測的需求。他們將已證實的方法學應用于新型材料，或回答關于其組成及反

41、應機理的新問題。4. 定性鑒別可能通過選擇性的化學反應或者儀器分析來完成。例如當把硝酸銀溶液滴加到一份溶解樣品中，生成白色沉淀就說明了樣品中存在氯離子。而紅外光譜可以給出有機化合物或官能團的“指紋”5. 違禁藥物檢查的第一階段稱作快速篩選階段，通常采用氣相色譜或液相色譜等定性分析方法檢查出可疑樣本；第二階段使用氣質聯用對可疑樣本進一步檢測；最后， 應用分光光度法或氣相色譜進行準確定量。Unit 111. The information the package insert contains is derived from data supplied by investigators and s

42、ubmitted by the pharmaceutical firm to the FDA, including the chemical structure of the drug, a summary of its pharmacological the toxicological action, its clinical indications and contraindications, precautions, reported adverse reactions, dosage recommendations, and available dosage forms.2. The

43、physician may exercise his professional judgment in the use of any drug. However, if he deviates from the instructions in the package insert and adverse reactions occur, he must be prepared to defend his position in court if there is a malpractice suit.3. If a severe reaction occurred and litigation

44、 followed, how would a court react if a physician admitted to the use of this drug for the treatment of some diseases in view of the prohibitions in the package insert? Would the published clinical study, plus the physician jsudgment in prescribing the drug, suffice?4. The FDA cannot require a pharm

45、aceutical firm to include a new use for the drug product in the insert even if it has been clinically tested and found useful for a given problem. But, if a new use for a drug is not yet included in the package insert, the manufacturer cannot advertise his product for that particular use.5. Today,the FDA s regulatorsycope and authority include ensuring the safety and purity of foods, drugs, medical devices, nutritional supplements, vaccines and cosmetics. Of particular concern to the anesthesiologist is the timely access to drug evaluation, pharmacologic, and medical device