1、Chapter 5Types of writingcontentThe purpose when you writel Describing a person, place, or thingl Telling a story or recounting an incidentl Reporting information l Providing instructions or explaining a processl Arguing a position or proving a pointl Analyzing something - a text, a theory, an attid

2、ude, or an eventcontentKeys in determining the type of writing l Topic (subject)l Purpose (why you are writing)l Style (how you should write)l Tone (your attitude toward your subject supportive, condemning, objective, etc.)contentMain types of writing l Descriptionl Narrationl Expositionl Argumentat

3、ioncontentDescription- Painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or scene.Principles: l A descriptive essay has one, clear dominant impression.l A descriptive essay can be objective or subjective. l It is important to use specific and concrete details.contentDescriptionConventions: l A

4、 descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory detail to communicate its point.l A descriptive essay must carefully select details to support the dominant impression.l Description very often relies on emotion to convey its point. l Unless the description is objective, you must be sure that the domin

5、ant impression conveys an attitude. contentTypes of description l Objective and Subjective l Description of a person, place, object, or scene content Objective and Subjective l Objective description focuses on facts, statistics, observable details. Objective description avoids emotion, sensationalis

6、m, or subjective interpretation: ExampleUN aid officials report that the drought has exacerbated（惡化, 增劇,） the famine. Farms and cattle ranches（停止，終止） have failed. Food production has virtually ceased. The death rate in refugee camps has increased 20% to 150 per day. Orphans have left the camps to be

7、g for food from convoy（護送） drivers bringing supplies from the coast.content Objective and Subjective l Subjective description is personal. It reflects the thoughts, feelings, mood of the writer. ExampleThe once fertile （富饒，肥沃）valley is now a dusty moonscape（荒涼的風景） of dry riverbeds, broken earth, and

8、 skeletons. Hundreds of men and women die of thirst, hunger, and disease in the heat and dust of the hopeless refugee camps. Emaciated （瘦弱的）orphans wander along the highway, lifting bony, empty hands to passing drivers. Scarred by hunger and loss, their young faces are old with death.content Blendin

9、g Objective and Subjective Description ExampleEvery six minutes someone dies of hunger and disease in the refugee camp. Drought has destroyed the peoples ability to grow food. With only a cup of rice a day to sustain them, orphans have left the camp to beg along the highways. Unless you help, many o

10、f them will not survive more than a month.contentDescription of a person- the persons appearance- the persons character, thoughts, and feelings- what the person says and does- the persons behavior to others* It is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish the person from all ot

11、her people.contentDescription of a personExampleSeeger had a head of loose, wavy brown hair hanging down to her waist at the back. She also had bangs over her forehead that almost hid her big blue eyes. The nose-not her best feature-was long and straight. She had a regular set of white teeth and was

12、 full-lipped.Tom Black, aged sixty, is a farm labourer for all his life. With sunburned skin, wrinkled forehead, he is strongly built and broad shouldered with slightly bent back. He always dresses a worn-out jean suit, but on Sundays he would be in his ties, white collars, and the best mans suit.co

13、ntentDescription of a placeFunctions:- for its own sake- for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person- for creating a feeling, mood, or atmosphere * As in describing a person, in describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other p

14、laces.contentDescription of a placeExample And there the pub was .It stood on the crown on the long hill ,straight ahead of them, a small red-brick house with out-buildings and a single chimney trailing out smoke against the strong white light which seemed to be thrown up by great reflectors from th

15、e hidden sea.contentDescription of an object- its size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell- how it is used if it is useful- what part it plays in a persons life* Emphasis should be placed on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.contentDescription of an objec

16、tExampleA ladder is used to help people to reach the things high above.A simple ladder is made of wood or bamboo with two shafts（軸，桿狀物） and pieces of rungs（橫檔）. Shafts are cylindrical（圓柱狀的） in shape, its length is the ladders length. The two shafts go parallel. Rungs are bar-shaped, usually about on

17、e third of a metre long and somewhat tapering at the two ends so that they can be fixed into the shafts hole. There are about a steps distance between the rungs.If you want to reach the things high or hang something on the wall, you just put the ladder against the wall, and climb up the ladder steps

18、.contentDescription of a scene- A scene is like a shot or a still in a film - Three basic factors: the settingthe peoplethe action* The writer should try to create a dominant impression when describing a scene. Before he begins to write, he must make up his mind as to what effect he wants the descri

19、ption to achieve. This will help him to decide which details to delete and which to include.contentDescription of a sceneExampleThe beach is rather rough with many big and small stones on the surface. The sand is also very big in form and brown in color. At the time of low tide, we can see the reefs

20、 appearing out of the water. It is not fit for swimmers to come here to bathe, so it is quiet all over the year.Moreover, when the tide is low, we may see some poor boys of the nearby villages. They carry bamboo baskets on their backs or under their arms. Running on the solitary beach, they are tryi

21、ng to pick up the small crabs among the rocks. They take them home for food or sell them for a little money.On the sea, we can see the distant fishing boats sailing back to the harbour to anchor there at night. The setting sun looks like an immense yolk. The sky turns into orange red and the surface

22、 of the sea is glittering like a sheet of gold leaf. The waves beating at the rocks sound like music. After all, a walk on the seashore is always enjoyable.contentNarration is to give an account of an event or a series of events. Five aspects to consider:Context when, where, and whoSelection of deta

23、ils only relevant detailsOrganization chronological order, or flashbackPoint of view either in the first person or in the third personPurpose to prove a theory, to illustrate a concept, to praise a virtue, to condemn a vice, etc.contentNarration Principles:l Remember to involve readers in the story.

24、 l Find a generalization, which the story supports. l Remember that although the main component of a narrative is the story, details must be carefully selected to support, explain, and enhance the story.contentNarration Conventions:l Narratives are generally written in the first person l Narratives

25、rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point. These details should create a unified, forceful effect, a dominant impression. l Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including setting and characters; a climax; and an ending.contentTypes of narration l Scen

26、e and Summary l First-person narration and third- person narration contentScene and Summary l Scene/scenic presentation is a showing mode which presents a continuous stream of detailed action events. He glanced at the girl lying asleep on one of the twin beds. Then he went over to one of the pieces

27、of luggage, opened it, and from under a pile of shorts and undershirts he took out an Ortgies caliber 7.65 automatic. He released the magazine, looked at it, then reinserted it. He cocked the piece. Then he went over and sat down on the unoccupied twin bed, looked at the girl, aimed the pistol, and

28、fired a bullet through his right temple. (Salinger, A Perfect Day for Bananafish 21)contentScene and Summary l Summary is a telling mode in which the narrator condenses a sequence of action events into a thematically focused and orderly account. Once upon a time there lived in Berlin, Germany, a man

29、 called Albinus. He was rich, respectable, happy; one day he abandoned his wife for the sake of a youthful mistress; he loved, was not loved; and his life ended in disaster. (Nabokov, Laughter in the Dark; qtd. Rimmon-Kenan 1983: 53-54)contentFirst-person narration and third- person narrationl The n

30、arrator speaks from within the story and, so, uses I to refer to him- or herself ; in other words, the narrator is a character of some sort in the story itself, even if he is only a passive observer; l The narrator speaks from outside the story and never employs the I contentExposition expounding or

31、 explainingAn expository paper mainly deals with processes and relationships. It explains or explores something, such as the process of making a machine, the cause of a natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.contentExpositionPrinciples:l How you support

32、 your opinion is more important than the opinion itself. l You should use language that is confident. Avoid approximations such as probably, perhaps and maybe - be assertive and use is. . l Using quotes is a great way to demonstrate a really good knowledge of a text or subject. l Make sure that you

33、have understood exactly what the question is asking you.l When you are editing, do more than check for spelling mistakes and grammatical errors. contentExpositionConventions:l Formal tone - avoid slang and colloquialisms and use formal language wherever possible. l Third person - avoid I. l Opinion

34、- you must have a thesis, answering the question yes or no is not good enough. l Strict structure contentExpositionMethods of exposition :l Illustration Illustration is the use of examples to explain a point. l Comparison and Contrast we are able to convey information and explain very difficult conc

35、epts by looking at the similarities and differences between two or more concepts. contentExpositionMethods of exposition :l Cause and Effect Avoid over-simplifying causes Avoid making mistakes in logic Avoid mistaking direct causes and effects for the indirect or the minor for the major Avoid omitti

36、ng links in the chainl Classification and Division When using classification, we draw attention to the similarities of the items; conversely, when we use division, we draw attention to the differences between items. contentExpositionPatterns of exposition :Description - The author explains a particu

37、lar topic by showing characteristics, features, and examples. ExampleThe Olympic symbol consists of five interlocking rings. The rings represent the five continents - Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America - from which athletes come to compete in the games. The rings are colored black

38、 blue, green, red, and yellow. At least one of these colors is found in the flag of every country sending athletes to compete in the Olympic games. contentExpositionPatterns of exposition :Comparison and Contrast - The author shows how two or more topics are alike or dissimilar. ExampleThe modern Ol

39、ympics is very unlike the ancient Olympic games. Individual events are different. While there were no swimming races in the ancient games, for example, there were chariot races. There were no female contestants and all athletes competed in the nude. Of course, the ancient and modern Olympics are als

40、o alike in many ways. Some events, such as the javelin and discus throws, are the same. Some people say that cheating, professionalism, and nationalism in the modern games are a disgrace to the Olympic tradition. But according to the ancient Greek writers, there were many cases of cheating, national

41、ism, and professionalism in their Olympics too. contentExpositionPatterns of exposition :Cause and Effect - The author demonstrates the cause while showing the effects of the cause. ExampleThere are several reasons why so many people attend the Olympic games or watch them on television. One reason i

42、s tradition. The name Olympics and the torch and flame remind people of the ancient games. People can escape the ordinariness of daily life by attending or watching the Olympics. They like to identify with someone elses individual sacrifice and accomplishment. National pride is another reason, and a

43、n athletes or a teams hard earned victory becomes a nations victory. There are national medal counts and people keep track of how many medals their countrys athletes have won.contentExpositionPatterns of exposition :Problem and Solution - The author explains a problem, then explores possible solutio

44、ns. ExampleOne problem with the modern Olympics is that it has become very big and expensive to operate. The city or country that hosts the games often loses a lot of money. A stadium, pools, and playing fields must be built for the athletic events and housing is needed for the athletes who come fro

45、m around the world. And all of these facilities are used for only 2 weeks! In 1984, Los Angeles solved these problems by charging a fee for companies who wanted to be official sponsors of the games. Companies like McDonalds paid a lot of money to be part of the Olympics. Many buildings that were alr

46、eady built in the Los Angeles area were also used. The Coliseum where the 1932 games were held was used again and many colleges and universities in the area became playing and livingcontentExpositionPatterns of exposition :Sequence - The author lists items or events in numerical or chronological ord

47、er.ExampleThe Olympic games began as athletic festivals to honor the Greek gods. The most important festival was held in the valley of Olympia to honor Zeus, the king of the gods. It was this festival that became the Olympic games in 776 B.C. These games were ended in A.D. 394 by the Roman Emperor w

48、ho ruled Greece. No Olympic games were held for more than 1,500 years. Then the modern Olympics began in 1896. Almost 300 male athletes competed in the first modern Olympics In the games held in 1900, female athletes were allowed to compete. The games have continued every four years since 1896 excep

49、t during World War II, and they will most likely continue for many years to come. contentArgumentation to persuade or to approveArgumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely r

50、elated argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.contentArgumentationHistory:Modern argumentation theory has roots in Greek and Roman thinking. After all, we trace our democratic form of government to these cultures, known also for their genius in p

51、hilosophy, the fine arts, and science. The Greco-Romans saw argument as a way to settle disputes and discover truth. Even wise, honest, caring people dont always agree on what is true or is fair. Thats why argument is important in academic writing, where students try to convince professors and class

52、mates to accept their ideas, where professors argue with students and with each other. contentArgumentation Principles:l Keep to the final goal of argumentation l Avoid Trivial Arguments over Matters of Established Fact Hamlet is the prince of Denmark, and he dies at the end of the play. The French

53、Revolution which started in 1789 brought about many changes.l More Complex and Interesting Arguments l The Importance of Reason contentArgumentation Basic features of argumentation:l A debatable point the following are not good themes: Mere statements of facts Statements of personal preference Viewp

54、oints that are generally accepted or can be easily verifiedcontentArgumentation Basic features of argumentation:l Sufficient evidenceSufficient evidence includes: common knowledge, specific examples, hard or soft evidence, or facts, statistics, quotations from authoritiescontentArgumentation Basic f

55、eatures of argumentation:l Good logicThere are generally two ways of reasoning: Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoningTypes of argumentationTwo major sub-genres of argumentation:inductive essaydeductive essayInduction refers to the process of examining particular details and then arriving at a conc

56、lusion based on that evidence.Deduction, contrary to the inductive reasoning, proceeds from general to particular.contentArgumentation Inductive reasoningThis is the logical process in which we proceed from particular evidence to a conclusion which, on the basis of that evidence, we agree to be true

57、 or probably true. Such thinking is also often called empirical reasoning or empiricism. It requires evidence (facts, data, measurement, observations, and so on). contentArgumentation Deductive reasoningThis is a logical process by which we move from something we already all agree to be true to the

58、application of this general truth to a particular case (e.g., Killing people is always wrong; capital punishment involves killing people; therefore, capital punishment is always wrong). contentArgumentation Basic features of argumentation:l Clear logica. An introductionb. A body:The evidence should

59、be arranged from the least to the most important; from the most familiar to the least familiar; and from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.c. A conclusionStructureIntroductionprovide background information; then state your thesisBodyparagraphConclusion Evidence:Offer support

60、for your thesis Opposition:Acknowledge and refuteopposing points of view.Draw conclusions from the evidence so as to restate the point of your thesisRefutation StructureIntroductionprovide background information; then statethe opponent thesisBodyparagraphConclusion Evidence:Offer evidences to refute