英文資料 CIM Industry Overview 1. Introduction Computer-integrated manufacturing CIM is the terra used to describe the computer automation of the factory, with all processes functioning under computer control and only digital information tying them together. In CIM, the need for paper is eliminated and so also are most human jobs. CIM is the ostensible evolutionary outcome of computer of computer-aided design and drafting and computer-aided manufacturing (CADD/CAM). Why is CIM desirable? Because it reduces the human computer of manufacturing and thereby relievers the process of its most expensive and error-prone ingredient. But CIM is, for the most part, an unrealized dream. The application of computer to the activities that make up the manufacturing process occurred in bottom-up fashion； that is, the potential utility of automation was recognized at the working level of organizations long before it came to the attention of management. CADD/CAM was first applied to numerical control (NC) programming on the production side of the factory and to analysis on the engineering side. Later, it began to be used in detail drafting, and now it is being applied to conceptual design. The result has been islands of automation in which individual processes are automated without concern for compatibility with one another. The scotch-after productivity has been deferred. What decisions must management makes to implement CIM? Automation in the factory is still very much a process of Enhancing islands of automation, and few efforts have been made toward their integrations. The situation will persist until management deals with the four greatest obstacles to integrated Automation: The pressure of the pyramid The prerogatives of the priesthood The personality of the power tools The powerlessness of the person 2. The Pressure of the Pyramid How does a factory work7 Figure 1 is a simple schematic diagram of the Figure 1 Factory function block diagram entities and processes. Most CADD vendors and many manufacturing executives believe that this diagram is reasonable abstraction of the factories with witch they come in contact. It depicts well-defined areas of responsibility and authority with simple flows of information, goods, and services. The automation of such a factor would be fast, easy, and interesting. even enjoyable. However, the diagram-has a slight flaw. This minor imperfection does little to decrease the popularity of the viewpoint represented by the diagram, but its elucidation will yield important insights into our first CIM obstacle. The flaw is simply this: The diagram is meaningless because it bears no relation to reality. It is worth as much to an organizational analyst as Fig 2 is worth a physician. In reality, the factory is a seething caldron of emotion, perspiration, nobility, Figure 2 human body functional block diagrams foolishness, greed, sincerity, selfishness, idealism, vanity, and generosity. It is a far uglier sight than a beehive or an anthill, and it is far more difficult to comprehend. Its actual beehive or an anthill, and it is far more difficult to comprehend. Its actual operation is almost impossible to diagram because it is shrouded in a fog raised by the heat of human activity. How the factory got to be that way is easy to understand: It simply a grew form its origins in an unplanned way. Each added element. a new machine, new management, a new product line. caused some turmoil while the organization adjusted to it and ultimately became part of a new equilibrium. Additions that did not take were eliminated, or they caused the organization to collapse. Since CIM involves computers, the computer department is often in the vanguard of CIM implementation planning. Although computer professionals like to think of organizational growth as crystalline, with pure geometric accretions accumulating in well-ordered quanta, the propagation of human organizations is usually messy. Organizations are made up of people, each of whom is self-seeking and self-centered. In addition to their assigned responsibilities and tasks, they develop relationships and procedures to protect and further their interests. The relationship and procedures are mot documented； not are they derived form the organizations explicit or implicit policies. But no modification of the organization can succeed without taking them into account, just as no surgery can be successfully performed without taking into account the complex network involved in the functioning of the human body. Almost all organization charts are hierarchical； there is open person at the top and there are many at the bottom of the hierarchy, that is the explicit aspect of the pyramid the hidden side of it comprises the self seeking behavior patterns of the individuals. Natural principles also are at work. There is the principle of inertia-things tend to stay the way they are. People dont like change, and they will act to keep things changing. At each level the organizational pyramid, equilibrium is maintained. Most organizations start with some consonance between the goals of the organizations and the goals of the individual, but the pyramid always goes into rigidity. Maintaining equilibrium becomes more important than pursuing the goals of the organization. This is the pressure of the pyramid. 3. The Prerogatives of the Priesthood Computers intimidate people who have not grown up with them. Initially costing millions of dollars and accessible only to specialists, these machines acquired mystical reputations. The metaphors of the computer room as a temple, and of longhaired social misfit programmers as priests are clinches. But people best suited to working with computers are those who see situations as collections of black-and-white phenomena, yes-or-no decisions. The best programmers are known to be asocial, and they often are antisocial. When these professionals are called upon to create a model of the factory, the model usually winds up having many of the attributes of computer systems. Human needs and idiosyncrasies are generally left out. Computers have thoroughly infested most companies, but workers are still mystified and frightened by them. The spread and use of computers are still planned and dictated largely by computer professionals, who hate not learned to understand the needs of users. Technical issues overshadow functional considerations in many system design and equipment the arguments of the technocratic. They ate indisputable because of the prerogatives of the priesthood. 4. The Personality of the Power Tools Achieving CIM requires harmonious interaction with computer at many levels. Most factory personnel will need intensive training in dealing with the particular systems they will encounter. Design engineers must use CADD and CAM systems. However, the computer system in CIM installations will come from a variety o vendors. He ways in which users interact with them will be many and varied, and they will necessarily be inconsistent with one another. This raises a tremendous barrier to CIM. For people to use the systems, the personality as the power tools must be congenial and consistent. 5. The Powerlessness of the Person People need to feel worthwhile. Put them in a situation in which they feel that they have no effect on the organization and they will react with rebellion or depression. In the pyramid of organizational hierarchy, only those neat the top ha ve much influence on the direction of the organization. Organizations so segment tasks that individuals seldom have the opportunity to see anything through to completion. Products and ideas are thus orphaned and left to fend for themselves. At the same time workers are bereaved of their brainchildren, and they feel sterile and frustrated. As the organization grow rigid with age, people in it feel more an more impotent. Many are impelled to leave. Those who remaining the ossifying structure are concerned with issues of seniority, turf, and pensions. not productivity. 6. Plucking Productivity from the jaws of Organization More output with fewer resources is a common definition of productivity improvement. It is often applied to the declared goals of organizations. But translating it into action steps for individuals is more than an exercise in management by objectives (MBO)； it requires the full cooperation and participation of the individual in the translation process. Without cooperation, the goal cannot be achieved； without participation, there can be no cooperation. The individual must have sense of ownership to adopt the goal. The four obstacles described above must be overcome if the participation of the individual is to be obtained. First, the pressure of the pyramid must be relaxed or avoided. In Intrapreneuring, Guilford Pinched III discusses the benefits of working within organizations with entrepreneurial techniques. “When any CEO calls for innovations, very little happens. This is not because of a lack of good ideas but because of the working within organizations with entrepreneurial techniques. “When any CEO calls for innovation, very little happens. This is not because of a lack of good ideas but because of the difficulties your difficulty your people have in implementing them. If you are not hearing good ideas, it is because they are blocked or sanitized before they reach you. Pinchot recommends giving individuals access to the corporate elision so that they can know how to direct their creativity. He then suggests that innovators be rewarded and given encouragement, authority, and resources from what most manufacturers currently do. Without passionate advocates, it cannot become reality. Pyramid rule must be relaxed. Second, the prerogatives of the priesthood must be abridged. The overriding considerations in the analysis and acquisition of computer based systems must be functional, not technical. Adherence to computer standards must be considered only within the context of the application, not a management upon ad means to ends, not as ends unto themselves. Third, the personality of the power tools. the faces “systems present to user must be congenial and consistent. We must reduce the amount of training and education that C1M will necessitate by working on the least expensive components: computers. People are expansible, and training is expensive； software is inexpensive by comparison. Todays CADD systems are largely uncongenial. Their personalities reflect those of their programmers, who have little in common with the system users. They are consequently head to learn and hard to use. In Your natural Gifts, Margaret Broadly discusses some of the findings of the Johnson OConnor Research Center. Human Engineering Laboratory. This organization has loud, after several decades of study, that people have genetically determined aptitudes. These aptitudes can redeveloped, but not learned. And people with unexercised aptitudes are bound to feel frustrated. The cluster of aptitudes exhibited by successful engineers includes high structural visualization, good proportions appraisal, and good musical aptitudes. Surprisingly, howler engineers often have low capacities for inductive reasoning. Thus, they are particularly averse to complicated computer tools, which must be figured out. The engineers computing tools must be self-evident. Science there is no generic engineering design methodology, operating procedures vary greatly from one vendor to another. In fact operating procedures often vary within the confines of a single system: Solid-modeling modules are different in their operation from other parts of most CADD systems. Computer graphics comes to the rescue in two important ways, it provides a consistent definition of the product that endures throughout the design, production, and delivery process, and offers a much Boaster information bandwidth for person-machine communications. Fourth, we must empower the individual within the organization to take up the corporate vision. We must provide room for entrepreneurs to seek and achieve fulfillment of their personal needs in such a way that they will in so doing, further the goals of the organization. We will not get to CIM otherwise. 7. chnology: Is it Ready for CIM? In the minds of many manufacturing executives, the implementation of CIM awaits the development of proper technologies. But that is not true. Current CADD/CAM technology is equal to the task of fully automating the factory, but it is rarely applied to an entire manufacturing facility. Management has yet to be convinced of the validity of the automation vendors productivity improvement promises. Computers are employed only in situations in which the short-term benefits are measurable and are likely to be realized. This has contributed to the isolation of the islands of automation. Integration is still rare. Even the organizations that use ADD/CAM extensively employ hard-copy drawings. In most companies, departments using CADD/CAM must produce hard copy because other departments have no way to deal with digital information. The capabilities of CADD/CAM systems are thus constrained to fit within largely manual operations, and much attention is consequently given to issues such as plot quality, that is irrelevant to CIM. 中文翻譯 計算機集成化制造的工業(yè)總看法 一、 導論 “計算機集成化制造” (CIM)是一種只靠數(shù)字信息結合的，在計算機控制下所有過程運行的工程完全自動化。在計算機集成化制造中，不需要紙張，人類工作的大部分 也不需要。計算機集成化制造是計算機輔助設計和繪圖 (CADD)和計算機輔助制造明顯進化的結果。 為什么需要計算機集成化制造呢 ?因為它減少了制造活動的人類組成部分，從而減少了制造過程中多數(shù)成本高且易出錯的部分。但是，大體上況，計算機集成化制造仍是一個不可實現(xiàn)的夢想。計算機彌補制造過程活動的應用，發(fā)生在當今時代。注意之前一直被認為處于工作水平。計算機復助設計及繪圖和計算機輔助制造首先應用于工廠生產方面的數(shù)字控制程序和工程方面的分析，后來，它被用于細致的繪圖。現(xiàn)在它被用于理論分析。這中結果形成了“自動化孤島”。在自 動化中， 單個過程是自動化的，而沒有考慮相互之間的和諧性。因此致使生產率進展緩慢。 管理人員必須制定什么樣的決策去實現(xiàn)計算機集成化制造呢 ?工廠中的自動化仍是增加“自動化孤島”的過程。并且，很少采取措施使它們融為一體。這種形式將那就是在自動化的潛在效用引起管理部門的一直持續(xù)到管理人員處理好自動化集成的四個最大障礙： 1金字塔式的壓力 2專家的權利 3動力機床的性能 4人的無能為力 1. 金字塔式的壓力 工廠是怎樣運行的 ?圖 1 是務實體和過程的一個簡單草圖。人多數(shù)計算機輔助設計及繪 圖銷售商和生產的執(zhí)行者都相信，這個圖表是他們接觸的一個合理抽象。它用簡單的信息、物質和服務流宋描述責任和權利的范圍，像這樣的工廠的自動化將是很快、很有趣、很容易的，甚至是一種享受。 圖 1：工廠生產過程圖 然而，這個圖表由一點點小缺陷，這個小缺陷并不會減少這個圖表所代表的觀點的普遍性。但它的解釋將對先前計算機集成化制造的障礙產生重要的洞察力，這個缺點如下：圖表是無意義的，因為它與現(xiàn)實沒有聯(lián)系，它對一個工廠決策者的作用如圖 2 對一個醫(yī)生的作用。 計算機集成化實現(xiàn)的先頭部隊。盡管計算機專家也愿意把工廠的 成長想象成透明的、可以用幾何圖形表示的，以安排好定量積累的方式增大，但人類組織的繁殖通常是巨大的，工廠是由人們組成的，他們中每一個追求私利和自私自利，除了他們分的責任和任務，他們發(fā)展關系來保護和追求他們的利益。 這種關系和禮節(jié)沒有用文件形式證明是合法的，它們沒有被組織明確的或含蓄的政策所剝奪。但不把它們考慮進去，組織的修改不會成功。沒有考慮包含在人體內的復雜網(wǎng)絡，外科手術不會成功一樣。幾乎所有的組織圖表都是分等級的；有一個人在等級制度頂端，有許多人在底部，這個金字塔明顯的方面，金字塔隱含的一面， 包含一個 人追求私利的行為方式。自然原理在這里也起作用，慣性作用一一物體總是保持原有的狀態(tài)。 圖 2 人體機能圖示 大部分組織以組織的目標和個人服務一致性開始。但是這個金字塔總慢慢變僵化，維持平衡變的比追求組織的目標更重要，這就是金字塔的壓力。 2. 專家的特權 計算機威脅著那些不了解計算機成長的人們，最初花費數(shù)百美元只為專家所理解。這些機器獲得了神秘的聲譽。計算機被比喻成神，把用玻璃圍起來的周圍環(huán)境受到控制的計算機機 房比作神廟和把長頭發(fā)穿著不合身的程序員比作教士是很合理的。 但是使用計算機工作的人多時那些把形式看成黑 白現(xiàn)象 作決策的人。最好的程序員由于不與人來往而著名，他們常常厭惡社交。這些專業(yè)人員被作為工廠的模范時，這個模范常常像有計算機許多特征一樣。時時刻刻認得需求和特性都被放出 來了。 計算機已經(jīng)完全應用與大多數(shù)公司，但工人仍對他們感到神秘和害怕，計算機的傳播和應用仍由計算機專家計劃支配， 這些人還沒有了理解用戶的需要。技術問題在許多系統(tǒng)設計和設備選擇過程時使功能考慮相形見絀，在最后分析時，沒有人敢對專家的論點提出質疑，他們時無可置疑的是因為他們具有專家的特權。 3. 動力機床的特性 獲得 CIM 需要個層次計算 機之間的和諧作用，許多工廠的工作人員需要集中培訓處理他們將接觸的特殊系統(tǒng)。 例如：設計工程師必須使用 CADD 系統(tǒng)，而制造工程師必須使用 ACDD 和 CAM系統(tǒng)，然而 CIM 設備中的計算機系統(tǒng)將來自各個領域的賣主，用戶同它們相互之間不一致。這對 CIM 將產生極大的障礙，對使用這個系統(tǒng)的人來說，動力機床的特性，必須是一致的和不變的。 若能們需要感到受尊重，