英語專業（語言學）歷年真題試卷匯編29(總分：88.00，做題時間：90分鐘)一、填空題(總題數：12，分數：24.00)1.ThestructuralapproachtotheanalysisoflanguagewasstartedbytheSwisslinguist1inthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：Saussure）解析：解析：對語言的構造性分析措施是在20世紀初，由瑞士語言學家索緒爾啟動的，他被稱為“現代語言學之父”和一位“使語言學走向現代的大師”。2.FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)isatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichdescribeshow1isdistributedinsentences.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：information）解析：解析：功能句子觀是一套語言學分析理論，它是指用信息論的原理來分析話語或文本。3.Systemic-FunctionalGrammar,unliketraditionalgrammarwhichtakessentenceasthelargestunit,takes1asthebasicunit.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：clause）解析：解析：與老式語法不一樣，系統功能語法把句子作為最大單位，把分句作為最小單位。4.InHalliday'sSystemicGrammar,asystemisalistofthingsbetweenwhichitispossibletochoose.Sotheyaremeanings,whichthegrammarcandistinguish.Theitemsinasystemarecalled1.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：options）解析：解析：系統就是存在于語法中的一系列選擇。系統語法的目的是要闡明語言作為系統的內部底層關系，它是與意義有關聯的可供人們不停選擇的若干子系統構成的系統網絡。5.TheprincipalrepresentativeofAmericandescriptivelinguisticsisL.Bloomfield,whosebook1(1933)wasonceheldasthemodelofscientificmethodology.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：Language）解析：解析：布龍菲爾德是描述語言學的重要代表，他的著作《語言》曾被當做科學措施的典范。6.ThepublicationofSyntacticStructures(1957)markedthebeginningofthe1.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：ChomskyRevolution）解析：解析：1957年，喬姆斯基寫了一本名為《句法構造》的著作，這本書標志著“喬姆斯基改革時代”的到來，從此，喬姆斯基在語言學界的地位變得極為重要。7.In1979,ChomskydeliveredaseriesoflecturesPisa,Italy,whichwererevisedlaterandpublishedunderthetideof1.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：LecturesonGovernmentandBinding）解析：解析：1979年，喬姆斯基開展了一系列的講座，之後把講座內容寫成一本書，叫做《管轄與約束》，即修正的擴展的原則理論。8.1isanapproachthatstressestherelationshipsofelementsinasentence.ItisatypeofgenerativegrammardevelopedbyC.J.Fillmore.(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：CaseGrammar）解析：解析：格語法是美國語言學家菲爾墨在60代中期提出來的，它是著重探討句法構造與語義之間關系的一種語法理論和語義學理論。9.1,bornin1928,isallAmericanlinguist,educator,andpoliticalactivist.Heisthefounderoftransformational-generativegrammar,asystemthatrevolutionizedmodemlinguistics.(北京郵電大學研)

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：NormanChomsky）解析：解析：喬姆斯基，生于1928年，是美國著名的語言學家，教育家。他是轉換生成語法的創始人。10.ThePragueSchoolisbestknownandrememberedforitscontributiontophonologyandthedistinctionbetween1andphonology.

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：phonetics）解析：解析：布拉格學派重要的奉獻是對音系學的研究和對音系學與語音學的辨別。11.ChomskyarguesthatLADprobablyconsistsofthreeelements,thatisa1,linguisticuniversal,andanevaluationprocedure.

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：hypothesis-maker）解析：解析：喬姆斯基的語言習得機制由3個元素構成：對語言的假想，語言的普遍性和評價。12.Systemic-FunctionalGrammartakestheactualusesoflanguageastheobjectofstudy,whileChomsky'sTGGrammartakestheidealspeaker'slinguistic1astheobjectofstudy.

（分數：2.00）填空項1:__________________

（對的答案：對的答案：competence）解析：解析：系統功能語法把實際中的語言現象當做其研究對象，而喬姆斯基的轉換生成語法把理想說話者的語言能力作為研究對象。二、判斷題(總題數：6，分數：12.00)13.Functionalgrammarisanapproachtolinguisticsthatgoesinthroughmeaning.(對外經貿研)

（分數：2.00）

A.真

B.假

√解析：解析：功能語法的基礎是語言系統及其成分由它們所提供的作用和功能所決定，而非其意義。14.Accordingtotheinnatenesshypothesis,infantsarebornabletospeakalanguage.(北二外研)

（分數：2.00）

A.真

B.假

√解析：解析：喬姆斯基的天賦假設是說，小朋友與生俱來擁有一種語言學習的能力，叫做“語言習得機制”。即小朋友天生擁有語法關系及語法范圍的知識，而不是說孩子天生就會說話。15.IntheClassicaltheory,Chomsky'saimistomakelinguisticsascience.Thistheoryischaracterizedbythreefeatures:(1)emphasisonprescriptionoflanguage;(2)introductionoftransformationalrules;and(3)grammaticaldescriptionregardlessoflanguageformation.(南開大學研)

（分數：2.00）

A.真

B.假

√解析：解析：喬姆斯基的古典理論有三個特點：(1)重視語言的生成能力，而非規定性；(2)轉換規則的簡介；(3)語法描述，不研究意義，而非不研究語言形式。16.Generativegrammarisasystemofrulesthatinsomeexplicitandwell-definedwayassignsstructuraldescriptionstosentences.(南開大學研)

（分數：2.00）

A.真

√

B.假解析：解析：喬姆斯基用“生成語法”這一概念來指“一套用來給句子進行構造描寫，定義明確嚴格的規則系統”。17.AmericanStructuralismisabranchofdiachroniclinguisticsthatemergedindependentlyintheUnitedStatesatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.

（分數：2.00）

A.真

B.假

√解析：解析：美國構造主義是共時語言學的一種分支，獨立地誕生于二拾世紀初的美國，它并不是歷時語言學的分支。18.Iftwosentenceshaveexactlythesameideationalandinterpersonalfunctions,theywouldbethesameintermsoftextualcoherence.

（分數：2.00）

A.真

B.假

√解析：解析：概念功能和人際功能完全相似的兩個句子可以有不一樣的語篇功能。三、單項選擇題(總題數：5，分數：10.00)19.Accordingto______theory,grammarreferstotheinitialstateofthehumanlanguagefaculty.(西安外國語學院研)

（分數：2.00）

A.Saussure's

B.Bloomfield's

C.Chomsky's

D.Halliday's

√解析：解析：韓禮德認為，人類語言能力的最初形式即是對語法知識的理解。20.______rulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.(西安交通大學研)

（分數：2.00）

A.Generative

B.Transformational

√

C.X-bar

D.Phrasestructure解析：解析：喬姆斯基的轉換規則會變化一種句子的句法構造。21.Generallyspeaking,the______specifieswhetheracertaintagmemeisinthepositionoftheNucleusoroftheMargininthestructure.

（分數：2.00）

A.Slot

√

B.Class

C.Role

D.Cohesion解析：解析：派克認為，語言的三種等級系統中的每一種層次都具有軌位、類別、作用和接應這四個特點的語言單位。軌位決定了法位在構造中是處在關鍵還是邊緣位置。22.ThemostimportantcontributionofthePragueSchooltolinguisticsisthatitseeslanguageintermsof______.

（分數：2.00）

A.function

√

B.meaning

C.signs

D.system解析：解析：布拉格學派將語言看作是在所屬語言群體中發揮一系列功能的工具，這是其對語言學界的一大奉獻。23.Chomskyfollows______inphilosophyandmentalisminpsychology.

（分數：2.00）

A.empiricism

B.behaviourism

C.rationalism

√

D.mentalism解析：解析：喬姆斯基在他的研究中運用了心理學中的理性主義和哲學中的心靈主義。四、簡答題(總題數：6，分數：12.00)24.WhyisSaussurehailedasthefatherofmodemlinguistics?(四川大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Saussureoccupiessuchanimportantplaceinthehistoryoflinguisticsthatheisoftendescribedas"fatherofmodernlinguistics":(1)ThebookCourseinGeneralLinguistics(1916),whichisthemostimportantsourceofSaussure'sideas,markedthebeginningofmodernlinguistics.(2)Saussurewasthefirsttonoticethecomplexitiesoflanguage.Hebelievedthatlanguageisasystemofsigns,calledconventions.Heheldthatthesignistheunionofthesignifierandthesignified.(3)Byprovidinganswerstoquestionsconcerningmanyaspectsoflanguage,Saussuremadecleartheobjectofstudyforlinguisticsasascience.Hisideasonthearbitrarynatureofsign,ontherelationalnatureoflinguisticunits,onthedistinctionoflangueandparoleandofsynchronicanddiachroniclinguistics,etc.pushedlinguisticsintoabrandnewstage.)解析：25.WhatarethethreeimportantpointsofthePragueSchool?(北交大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：ThethreeimportantpointsdevelopedinPragueSchoolare:(a)Itwasstressedthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustifiedasitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialforinvestigationbutnorigidtheoreticalbarrieriserectedtoseparatediachronicstudy.(b)Therewasanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.(c)Languagewaslookedonasfunctionalinanothersense,thatis,asatoolperforminganumberessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.)解析：26.WhatarethemajorconcernsofthePragueSchooltheory?(北航研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：ThreepointsofthePragueSchooltheoryareofspecialimportance.First,itwasstressedthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustifiedasitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialforinvestigation.Second,therewasanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.Third,languagewaslookedonasfunctionalinanothersense.Basedontheseideas,thePragueSchoolpracticedaspecialstyleofsynchroniclinguistics,andmadegreatcontributiontophonologyandthedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology.Itsmostimportantcontributionisthatitseeslanguageintermsoffunction.)解析：27.WhatisyourunderstandingofSystemicFunctionalGrammar?(北航研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Systemicfunctionalgrammar,developedbyM.A.K.Halliday,isasociallyorientedfunctionallinguisticapproachandoneofthemostinfluentiallinguistictheoriesinthetwentiethcentury.Systemicfunctionalgrammarisbasedontwofacts;Languageusersareactuallymakingchoicesinasetofsystemsandtryingtorealizedifferentsemanticfunctionsinsocialinteraction.Languageisinseparablefromsocialactivitiesofman.Thus,ittakesactualusesoflanguageastheobjectofstudy.Onepointtonoticeisthatittakesclauseasthebasicunit.Itconsistoftwoinseparableparts:systemicgrammarandfunctionalgrammar.)解析：28.Whatisbehaviourism?

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Behaviourismisaprincipleofscientificmethod,basedonthebeliefthathumanbeingscannotknowanythingtheyhavenotexperienced.Behaviourisminlinguisticsholdsthatchildrenlearnlanguagethroughachainof"stimulus-responsereinforcement",andtheadult'suseoflanguageisalsoaprocessof"stimulus-response".)解析：29.WhatistherelationshipbetweenlinguisticsandbehaviorismaccordingtoBloomfield?

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：ForBloomfield,linguisticsisabranchofthepositivisticbrandofpsychologyknownas"behaviourism".WhenthebehaviouristmethodologyenteredlinguisticsviaBloomfield'swritings,thepopularpracticeinlinguisticstudieswastoacceptwhatanativespeakersaysinhislanguageandtodiscardwhathesaysaboutit.Thisisbecauseofthebeliefthatalinguisticdescriptionwasreliablewhenbasedonobservationofunstudiedutterancesbyspeakers;itwasunreliableiftheanalysthadresortedtoaskingspeakersquestionssuchas"Canyousay...inyourlanguage?")解析：五、名詞解釋(總題數：7，分數：14.00)30.FerdinanddeSaussure(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：FerdinanddeSaussureisaSwisslinguistwhoisoftendescribedas"fatherofmodernlinguistics".Thegreatwork,CourseinGeneralLinguistics,whichwasbasedonhislecturenotes,markedthebeginningofmodernlinguistics.Saussure'sideaonthearbitrarynatureofsign,onetherelationalnatureoflinguisticunits,onthedistinctionoflangueandparoleandofsynchronicanddiachroniclinguistics,etc.pushedlinguisticsintoabrandnewstage.)解析：31.Textualfunction(西安外國語學院研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Textualfunction:Thetextualfunctionisoneofthethreemeta-functionslanguageiscomposedof.Itreferstothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenorwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingmessagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.)解析：32.TheLondonSchoolofLinguistics(中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：TheLondonSchoolgenerallyreferstothekindoflinguisticscholarshipinEngland.ThemanwhoturnedlinguisticsproperintoarecognizeddistinctacademicsubjectinBritainwasJ.R.Firth.)解析：33.Surfacestructure(四川大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Surfacestructure:Itisatermusedingenerativegrammartorefertothefinalstageinthesyntacticrepresentationofasentence,whichprovidestheinputtothephonologicalcomponentofthegrammar,andwhichthusmostcloselycorrespondstothestructurewearticulateandhear.Forinstance,"Johniseasytoplease."and"Johniseagertoplease."aretwosentenceswiththesamesurfacestructure.)解析：34.Transformational-Generativegrammar(浙江大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Transformational-generativegrammarisproposedbyNoamChomsky.Hepostulatedasyntacticbaseoflanguage(calleddeepstructure),whichconsistsofaseriesofphrase-structurerewriterules,i.e.,aseriesof(possiblyuniversal)rulesthatgeneratestheunderlyingphrase-structureofasentence.Theendresultofatransformational-generativegrammarisasurfacestructurethatisidenticaltoanactualsentenceofalanguage,afterthemediatingofaseriesofrules(calledtransformations)thatactuponthedeepstructures.)解析：35.LanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)(武漢大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：LanguageAcquisitionDevice:LADreferstoaninnatefacultyoflanguageingeneralwithwhichchildrenareborn.ItispositedbyChomsky,whoarguesthatLADprobablyconsistsofthreeelements;ahypothesis-maker,linguisticuniversal,andanevaluationprocedure.)解析：36.Innatenesshypothesis

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：The"InnatenessHypothesis"ofchildlanguageacquisitionwasproposedbyNoamChomsky,whostatesthatlanguagearesomewhatinnateandthatchildrenarebornwithwhathecallsalanguageacquisitiondevice,whichisauniquekindofknowledgethatfitsthemforlanguagelearning.)解析：六、1舉例闡明題(總題數：8，分數：16.00)37.AdiscussiononSaussureasthefatherofmodernlinguistics.(武漢大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Saussurewasthefirsttonoticethecomplexitiesoflanguage.Hebelievedthatlanguageisasystemofsigns.Tocommunicateideas,signsmustbepartofasystemofsigns,calledconventions.Heheldthatthesignistheunionofaform(signifier)andanidea(signified),anditisthecentralfactoflanguage.Byprovidinganswerstoquestionsconcerningmanyaspectsoflanguage,Saussuremadecleartheobjectofstudyforlinguisticsasascience.Saussureexertedtwokindsofinfluenceonmodernlinguistics.First,heprovidedageneralorientation,asenseofthetaskoflinguisticswhichhasseldombeenquestioned.Second,heinfluencedmodernlinguistics.Manyofthedevelopmentsofmodernlinguisticscanbedescribedashisconcepts,i.e.hisideasonthearbitrarynatureofsign,ontherelationalnatureoflinguisticunits,onthedistinctionoflangueandparoleandofsynchronicanddiachroniclinguistics,etc.Saussure'sfundamentalperceptionisofrevolutionarysignificance,anditishethatpushedlinguisticsintoabrandnewstageandalllinguisticsinthetwentiethcenturyisSaussureanlinguistics.That'swhySaussureisconsideredbeingthefatherofmodernlinguistics.)解析：38.WhataretheuniquefeaturesofHalliday'ssystemiclinguistics?(北航研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：Halliday'sSystemicGrammarisdifferentfromotherlinguistictheoriesinthefollowingaspects.First,itattachesgreatimportancetothesociologicalaspectsoflanguage.Secondly,itviewslanguageasaformofdoingratherthanaformofknowing.Itdistinguisheslinguisticbehaviorpotentialfromactuallinguisticbehavior.Thirdly,itgivesarelativelyhighprioritytodescriptionofthecharacteristicsofparticularlanguagesandparticularvarietiesoflanguages.Fourthly,itexplainsanumberofaspectsoflanguageintermsofclines(i.e.ungrammatical→moreunusual→lessunusual→lessusual→grammatical).Fifthly,itseeksverificationofitshypothesesbymeansofobservationfromtextsandbymeansofstatisticaltechniques.Lastly,ithasasitscentralcategorythecategoryofthesystem.)解析：39.HowdoesHallidayrelatethefunctionsperformedbylanguagetoitsstructures?(北京郵電大學研；中山大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：AccordingtoHalliday,structureistheoutwardformofthesystem,whichliesbehindtheformer.Structure,therefore,islessabstract,andclosertothe"surface".Bystudyingtheconstituencystructureofgrammar,itisassumedthatthesemanticsystemaboveitcouldbecomeplausible.Intheconstituencystructure,elementsarerecognizedwithreferencetotheirfunctionsinrelationtothewhole.Therefore,in"Thehugetigerclimbedatree",onlyelementslike"thehugetiger"not"the"or"thehuge"couldberecognized,sinceitisthewholesequencethatplaysaroleintheclause,andinthissentence,theroleisSubject.ThisisthewayofbracketingusedinSystemic-FunctionalGrammar.Thisstepisfollowedbylabeling,whichistorevealthespecificfunctionofthatelementinrelationtothewhole.Forexample,bylabeling"thehugetiger"afunctionallabel;"Subject",wegettoknowtheinterpersonalfunctionthatelementplays.Itisthroughthesetwostepsthestructuresarerelatedtothefunctionsperformedbylanguage.)解析：40.Chomskysetsupthreedifferenttargetstoaimat:observationaladequacy,descriptiveadequacyandexplanatoryadequacy.Defineanddiscussthem.(浙江大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：AccordingtoChomsky,observationaladequacyrequiresagrammartobeabletoproducecorrectexplanationsforrawlinguisticdata;thatis,itshouldbeabletocapturespeakers'intuitionsaboutgrammaticality.Onthesecondlevel,thatis,onthelevelofdescriptiveadequacy,agrammarshouldnotonlyproducecorrectexplanationsforrawlinguisticdata,butalsoproducecorrectexplanationsforthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandhearer;thatis,itshouldreflectspeakers'competence.Onthethird,andthehighest,level,i.e.explanatoryadequacy,agrammarthatissufficientlydescribedshouldreveallinguisticcompetenceandthenrelateitwithuniversalgrammarsinordertoberelatedtotheinitialstateofthehumanmindforthepurposeofrevealinghumancognitivesystems;thatis,itshouldaccountforthelearnabilityoflanguage.InChomsky'spointofview,itisfarfromadequateforagrammartomerelydistinguishthosestringsofwordswhicharesentencesofthelanguagefromthosewhicharenotsentencesofthelanguageinquestion.Neitherisitforagrammartoassignstructurestosentencesthatmatchnativespeaker'sintuitionaboutstructureandmeaning.However,thisiswheretheStructuralisticapproachstops.Therefore,Chomskyarguesforagenerativegrammarsinceitisabletoexplainhowthefactsarethewaytheyareandhowtheyariseinthemindofthespeakerandhears.Anditisaftersuccessfuldescriptionsofmanylanguagesandsubsequentgeneralizationsofuniversalfeaturesofhumanlanguagethatitispossibletoexploretheinitialstateofthehumanmindthatcontainsuniversalgrammars.)解析：41.TherolesofTransformational-GenerativelinguisticsandFunctionallinguisticsinlanguageteachingandlearning.(武漢大學研)

（分數：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________

對的答案：(對的答案：(1)IntheframeworkofTransformational-Generativelinguistics,languageisnotlearntbyinnate.Whileacquiringhismothertongue,hecompareshisinnatelanguagesystemwiththatofhisnativelanguageandmodifieshisgrammar.Therefore,languagelearningisanactivityofbuildingandtestinghypothesis.Althoughtheinfluenceofsuchaformalandabstractgrammarremainslimitedinthefieldoflanguageeducation,therearestillvariousattemptstoapplyTGgrammartolanguageteaching.Indesigningteachingmaterials,forexample,sentencepatternswiththesamedeepstructurecanbecloselyrelated,suchastheactiveandthepassive.Transformationalrulesmayassisttheteacherintheteachingofcomplexsentenceconstruction.Intheteachingofliterature,TGgrammarprovidesanewinstrumentforstylisticanalysis.(2)TheFunctionallinguisticsseeslanguagelearningfromasemantic-sociolinguisticperspective.Inparticular,Systemic-Functionallinguistics,whichwasproposedbyHalliday,seestheformalsystemoflanguageasarealizationoffunctionsoflanguageinuse.Itsscopeisbroaderthanthatofformallinguistictheories.Inthefieldoflanguageteaching,itleadstothedevelopmentofnotion/function-basedsyllabuses,whichhaveattractedincreasingattention.)解析：42.WhatarethedistinctivefeaturesofAmericanstructuralism?(武漢大學研)

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對的答案：(對的答案：AmericanstructuralismisabranchofsynchroniclinguisticsthatdevelopedinaverydifferentstylefromthatofEurope.WhilelinguisticsinEuropestartedmorethantwothousandyearsago,linguisticsinAmericastartedattheendofthenineteenthcentury.WhiletraditionalgrammarplaysadominatingroleinEurope,ithaslittleinfluenceinAmerica.WhilemanyEuropeanlanguageshavetheirownhistoricaltraditionsandcultures,EnglishisthedominatinglanguageinAmerica,wherethereisnosuchatraditionasinEurope.Inaddition,thepioneerscholarsinAmericawerefacedwiththeurgenttaskofrecordingtherapidlyperishingnativeAmericanIndianlanguagesbecausetherewasnowrittenrecordofthem.However,theselanguageswerecharacterisedbyfeaturesofvastdiversityanddifferenceswhicharerarelyfoundinotherpartsoftheworld.Torecordanddescribetheseexoticlanguages,itisprobablybetternottohaveanypresuppositionsaboutthenatureoflanguageingeneral.Thisexplainswhytherewasnotmuchdevelopmentinlinguistictheoryduringthisperiodbutalotofdiscussionondescriptiveprocedures.Structuralismisbasedontheassumptionthatgrammaticalcategoriesshouldbedefinednotintermsofmeaningbutintermsofdistribution,andthatthestructureofeachlanguageshouldbedescribedwithoutreferencetotheallegeduniversalityofsuchcategoriesastense,moodandpartsofspeech,Firstly,structuralgrammardescribeseverythingthatisfoundinalanguageinsteadoflayingdownrules.However,itsaimisconfinedtothedescriptionoflanguages,withoutexplainingwhylanguageoperatesthewayitdoes.Secondly,structuralgrammarisempirical,aimingatobjectivityinthesensethatalldefinitionsandstatementsshouldbeverifiableorrefutable.However,ithasproducedalmostnocompletegrammarscomparabletoanycomprehensivetraditionalgrammars.Thirdly,structuralgrammarexaminesall