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OPERATIONALBRIEF

Coastal

andMarine

Biodiversity

andEcosystems

BLUEECONOMYFORRESILIENTAFRICAPROGRAM

PublicDisclosureAuthorized

?2022TheWorldBankGroup

1818HStreetNW,WashingtonDC20433

Telephone:202-473-1000|Internet:

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Coverphoto:?DudarevMikhail/Shutterstock

Acknowledgments

ThisbriefwaswrittenbyRuthTiffer-Sotomayor(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist)withcontributionsfromJo?oMouraMarques(NaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist),RuxandraFloroiu(LeadEnvironmentalSpecialist),EnosEsikuri(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),JaneKibbassa(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),DaniaMosa(Consultant),SarahJung(Consultant),IdrissDeffry(EnvironmentalSpecialist),andMariaLopez(OperationsOfficer,IFC).

ThispublicationwaspreparedbyateamledbyLiaCarolSieghart(PracticeManager)andcomprisingPeterKristensen(LeadEnvironmentalSpecialist),MarceloHectorAcerbi(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),SajidAnwar(EnvironmentalSpecialist),DarshaniDeSilva(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),NagarajaRaoHarshadeep(Lead

EnvironmentalSpecialist),KanakoHasegawa(EnvironmentalSpecialist),EdeIjjasz-Vasquez(LeadConsultant),JulianaCastanoIsaza(NaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist),FedericoScodelaro(Consultant),MadjigueneSeck(SeniorPartnershipSpecialist),RuthTiffer-Sotomayor(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),andPhoebeGirouardSpencer(EnvironmentalEconomist).

ThepublicationhasgreatlybenefitedfromthestrategicguidanceofSimeonEhui(RegionalDirector,WestandCentralAfrica1),BoutheinaGuermazi(Director,AfricaRegionalIntegration),StephenHammer(Adviser),ValerieHickey(GlobalDirector,Environment),KeikoMiwa(RegionalDirector,HumanDevelopment,MiddleEastandNorthAfrica),PaulNoumbaUm(RegionalDirector,InfrastructureandactingRegionalDirectorforSustainableDevelopment,MiddleEastandNorthAfrica),andAyatSoliman(RegionalDirector,EastandSouthernAfrica).

Theteambenefitedfrominsightfulcommentsandguidancefrominternalreviewers.ReviewersforthepublicationwereMarceloAcerbi(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),SylviaMicheleDiez(PROBLUEProgramManager),RuxandraFloroiu(LeadEnvironmentalSpecialist),EdeIjjasz-Vasquez(LeadConsultant),ChristianPeter(PracticeManager),LiaCarolSieghart(PracticeManager),andSanjaySrivastava(PracticeManager).

Inaddition,theteamreceivedincisiveandhelpfuladvice,input,andcommentsfromWorldBankcolleagues,includingSyedAdeelAbbas(SeniorClimateChangeSpecialist),AnjaliAcharya(SeniorEnvironmentalEngineer),JacquelineAlder(Consultant),PhilippeAmbrosi(SeniorEnvironmentalEconomist),TamaraBah(Consultant),OzgulCalicioglu(EnvironmentalEngineer),SoniyaCarvalho(LeadEvaluationOfficer),ManonPascaleCassara(Consultant),KerenCharles(SeniorDisasterRiskManagementSpecialist),ManuelaRavinadaSilva(EnvironmentalSpecialist),CharlotteDeFontaubert(SeniorFisheriesSpecialist),IdrissDeffry(EnvironmentalSpecialist),RaianDivanbeigi(SeniorEconomist),EnosEsikuri(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),GunillaGreig(SeniorFisheriesSpecialist),GabriellaMorandiGuimaraes(Consultant),MagedHamed(LeadEnvironmentalSpecialist),SandrineJauffret(SeniorNaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist),SarahJung(Consultant),HarrisonCharoKarisa(SeniorFisheriesSpecialist),JaneKibbassa(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),MarkLeybourne(SeniorEnergySpecialist),MariaLopez(Consultant),Jo?oMouraMarques(NaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist),BernhardMetz(SeniorOperationsOfficer),JohnMorton(SeniorUrbanSpecialist),DaniaMosa(Consultant),KamakshiPereraMubarak(SocialDevelopmentSpecialist),HelenaNaber(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist),StefanOtt(JuniorProfessionalOfficer),BerengerePrince(LeadNaturalResourcesManagement),DarioQuaranta(Consultant),HakJooSong(JuniorProfessionalOfficer),andLouiseTwining-Ward(SeniorPrivateSectorSpecialist).

Supportforthisreportwasalsoprovidedby

PROBLUE

,amulti-donortrustfundadministeredbytheWorldBankthatsupportsthesustainableandintegrateddevelopmentofmarineandcoastalresourcesinhealthyoceans.

BLUEECONOMYFORRESILIENTAFRICAPROGRAMI1

Aboutthe

BlueEconomyfor

ResilientAfrica

Program

Key

Messages

TheBlueEconomygeneratednearly

US$300billionforthe

Africancontinentin2018

,creating49millionjobsintheprocess.Theseandothercrucialbenefits—mostnotablyfoodsecurity,livelihoods,biodiversity,andresiliencetotheeffectsofclimatechange—areentirelydependentonthehealthandproductivityofcoastalandmarineareas.

TodeveloparesilientBlueEconomy,theAfricancontinentneedstobetterprotectandmanageitsbiodiversityandhabitattoenhanceecosystemservices.

Bysafeguardingproductivecoastallandscapes,countrieswillbeinabetterpositiontotakefulladvantageoffutureBlueEconomyopportunities,whichrangefromsustainableblueenergytoaquaculturetobluecarbon.

Bettermonitoringoftheocean’sphysicalandbiologicalchangeswillbekey.Improvedcoastalandmarinedataandknowledgewillinformco-createdmanagementdecisions.

TheWorldBank’s

BlueEconomyforResilientAfricaProgram

,announcedatCOP27,willprovidemultisectoralanalytical,financial,andpolicysupporttoAfrica’scoastalcountriesandislandstatestohelpthemleveragetheopportunities—andmanagetherisks—inherentinscalinguptheirBlueEconomies.

Aboutthisseriesofbriefs

Governancealsoplaysanimportantrole.Coastalareasandterritorialwatersareunderthejurisdictionofseveralagenciesthat

lacksufficientcoordinationandincentivestoimprovethemanagementofnaturalresources.Marinespatialplanningisanimportanttooltoimprovesuchgovernance.

?VincentTremeau/WorldBank

TheBlueSolutionsforAfricaseriesofoperationalbriefscaptureshowathrivingBlueEconomycanhelpAfricancountriesbettermanagethedevelopmentchallengestheyfacewhilesupportingeconomicgrowth,sustainablelivelihoods,andthehealthofthesepreciousecosystems.

On-the-groundenforcementandmonitoringalsoneedtobeimproved.CountriesalongtheAfricancoastlinedesperatelyneedto

THEBRIEFSCOVERTHEFOLLOWINGTHEMATICAREAS

?Climatechange

?Coastalandmarine

biodiversityandhabitats

?Sustainablefisheries

?Marinepollution

?Jobsandlivelihoods

?Participatorymarinespatialplanning

?Datamanagementandknowledgecreation

?Innovativefinancinginstruments

?Developingandincentivizinginstitutions

?Newfrontiersofinnovation

regaincontrolovertheirexclusiveeconomiczonesthroughat-seapatrollingoftheiropenwaters.

?Shutterstock

BLUEECONOMYFORRESILIENTAFRICAPROGRAMI3

?Freepik

Introduction

Africa’sdiverseandrichbiodiversity—whichprovidescriticalecosystemservices,drivesthecontinent’seconomy,andserves

asabuffertoclimatechange—areincreasinglythreatenedbyoceanandcoastaldegradation,overfishing,erosion,andtheeffectsofclimatechange.

Tomitigatethesethreatsandimprovetheresilienceofmarinehabitats,Africa’sgovernmentsneedtopartnerwiththeprivatesectoranddevelopmentfinanceinstitutions,includingtheWorldBank,toimprovecollaborativemarineresourcegovernance,enhancetheknowledgebaseofmarineecosystemsandspeciestoinformdecision-making,andstrengthentherestoration,monitoring,andcontrolofmarineandcoastalareas.

ThisbriefsetsoutthekeychallengestomarineandcoastalecosystemsinAfricancountries,aswellaswhatisneededtoaddressthesechallenges.ItalsoprovidesinsightintohowWorldBank-financedprojectsinAfricaareenhancingbiodiversityrestorationandconservation,whilediversifyinglivelihoods,especiallyforthebenefitofwomen.

ICOASTALANDMARINEBIODIVERSITYANDECOSYSTEMS?Freepik

TheChallenge

Africaishometo

eightoutof36global

biodiversityspots

,

439marinekey

biodiversityareas

,and

148marineand

coastalRamsarsites

.Thecontinent’s

30,000kilometer(km)shoreline

isacradleofimmenselydiverse

ecosystems,includingmangroves,coralreefs,andseagrasses.

Africa’sdiverseandrichbiodiversityprovidescriticalecosystemservices,drivesthecontinent’seconomy,andservesasabuffertoclimatechange.TheAfricanUnion’s

Agenda2063

hasdeclaredtheBlueEconomytobe“Africa’sFuture”inrecognitionofthekeyroleoceansplayascatalystsforsocioeconomictransformation.FisheriesandaquaculturealreadycontributeUS$24billiontotheAfricaneconomy.However,Africaneedstourgentlyaddressimportantchallengesinthebluesector—includingcoastalerosion,biodiversityloss,

pollution

,andoverfishing—tounlockthefullpotentialoftheBlueEconomy.

About21percentoftheworld’smangrovesarefoundinAfrica.Coastalmangrovesareuniqueecosystemsthatprovidecriticalsocio-economicbenefitssuchascoastalprotection,foodsecurity(throughfishingandmariculture),ecotourismopportunities,andcarbonsequestration.Despiteitsimportance,mangroveshavebeendepleted,overharvestedforfirewoodandcharcoal,ortransformedwiththeincreaseurbanizationofcoastalareas.

Effectivepolicies,patrolling,andsurveillanceeffortscanimprovethemanagement,use,andprotectionofblueresources.Theeradicationofdestructivefishingpracticessuchasblasting,beachseining,juvenilefishing,theuseofcyanide,andbottom-trawlingwouldalsorestoremarinelifeforsustainableuseunderaBlueEconomy.

Climatechangeisexacerbatingthesechallengesbycausing

warmingwaters,sealevelrise,acidification,andcoastal

erosion

.Climbingsea-watertemperaturesandthereductionofoxygenconcentrationswillhaveasignificanteffectincoastalandmarineecosystems,affectingprimaryproductionbyphytoplanktonandalgae,aswellastheabundanceanddistributionofmarinespecies.Increasingtemperaturesarealreadyleadingtocoralreefbleaching,andincreasedacidificationisaffecting

coralratesofcalcification

.Bothdriversarethreateningthesurvivalofcoralreefs,whichprovidevitalhabitatformanyfish,sharks,crabs,andmolluskspeciesthathaveimportanteconomicvalueformanycountries.

Underahighcarbondioxidescenario,itis

predicted

thatclimatechangewill,by2050,reducetheglobalmaximumcatchpotentialby7.7percent,decreasingrevenuesby10.4percent.(Maximumcatchpotentialisaproxymeasureforthemaximumsustainableyield.)ClimatechangecouldhaveasimilarlysignificantimpactonAfrica’smarinefisheries,with

WestAfricancountriesexpectedtobeamongtheworst

affected

,whileNorthAfricancountrieswilllikelybelessaffected.SomeAfricancountriescouldevenseeanincreasedcatchpotential.Similarly,climatechangewillhave

different

effectsonthebiomassandabundanceofdifferentmarine

ecosystemsandspecies

.

BLUEECONOMYFORRESILIENTAFRICAPROGRAMI5

Althoughweathershockscausedbytyphoons,cyclones,andcoastalstormsarefamiliarnaturalphenomenaalongtheAfricancoast,climatechangeandrelateddynamicssuchassea-levelriseandcoastalerosionwillexacerbatethedamagebroughtaboutbytheseevents.Thedeteriorationofcoastalhabitatsandcoralreefsreducestheprotectionservicesandbenefitstheyofferwhileincreasingtheriskoffloods.AreasalongthecoastofBenin,C?ted’Ivoire,Senegal,andTogoaresubjecttoanaverageerosionof

1.8meterseachyear

.In2017,erosion,flooding,andpollution

costthesecountries

aboutUS$3.8billion

,equaltoabout5.3percentoftheircombinedGDPforthatyear.

Invasivespecies,introducedthroughthereleaseofballastwatersfromforeignoceansbythemaritimesector,arealsonegativelyaffectingAfrica’smarineecosystems.Shipscarryballastwaterforstabilityonshippingroutes,thenreleasethiswater(andwhateverorganismsitcontains)intoforeignecosystems.About

10,000speciesarecarriedinships’ballast

watertankseachday

.Africaisnotexemptfromthisissueandattentionisneededtoreducethenegativeecologicalandeconomiceffectsofinvasivespecies.SouthAfrica,forexample,isfacedwith

thechallengeofmanaging45invasive

species

thathaveaffectedthelocalenvironmentandnativespecies,includingChileanmussels(Semimytilusalgosus),Pacificbarnacles(Balanusglandula),andSouthAmericansunstar(Heliasterhelianthus).

BetterunderstandingandknowledgeofmarinebiodiversityandcoastalhabitatsisneededtoenableAfricangovernmentstobettermanagetheseriskstolocaleconomies.Supportisneededforinitiativesthatcollectdataandconductresearchintohowclimatechangeisaffectingthecoastalregions,causingsealevelerosionaswellaschangestotheocean’sbiologicalresourcesandchemicalandphysicalcharacteristics.Notknowingthecurrentstatusofmarinespeciesandthreatswillimpedetheproperuseofbluecapitalforeconomicgrowth.Climatechangewillexacerbatethedegradationofoceanichabitats,inturnthreateningthecontinent’snascentBlueEconomy.Strongcommitmentfromgovernmentsandinvestmentsfromthepublicandprivatesectorswillhelpreversethistrend,enablingasustainableBlueEconomyinAfricathatisbetterabletoimproveresiliencetowardsclimatechangerisksandslowthelossofcoastalandmarinebiodiversity.

WhatisNeeded

TofullyseizetheopportunitiesoftheBlueEconomy,Africaneedsacombinationofimprovedgovernance;ambitious,innovative

investmentsintoscalablesolutionstoimprovetheresilienceofmarinenaturalcapital;strengthenedknowledgeofthemarineenvironment;andbettercollaborationandenforcement.

Improvedgovernance

Effectiveactionisfrequentlyhinderedbylackofcoordinationbetweenthevariousentitiesresponsiblefor

governingcoastalareas,territorialwaters,andexclusiveeconomiczones.Incentivestosupportsustainable

managementofcoastalandmarinenaturalresourcesarealsoofteninadequate.Marinespatialplanningcanbeaneffectivetoolforimprovingcoastalgovernance.Tosupportsuchplanning,policiesandregulationsneedtobeupdatedto:

?Ensurethatcomprehensiveenvironmentalimpactassessmentsareconductedonvulnerablecoastalandoceanareas

?Reducepollution,includingrisksfrommaritimetransport

?Bettermanagecoastalurbanization

?PeterKapuscinski/WorldBank

?JohnHogg/WorldBank

?Freepik

?Shutterstock

?VincentTremeau/WorldBank

?Shutterstock

?Freepik

?Freepik

?WillyamBradberry/Shutterstock

?Freepik

?Shutterstock

?Freepik

?Improveprotectionsofcriticalmarinehabitats.

Theestablishmentofmarineprotectedareasandotherno-fishingzonescould,asanexample,supporttherestorationofmangrovesandcoralreefs,so

creatingspaceforoverfishedspeciestorecover

.

SeveralAfricancountries

havesupportedtheproposed

post-2020GlobalBiodiversityFramework

,whichaimstoprotect30percentoflandandoceansby2030.However,todateonly

16.9percent

oftheAfricanshoreandoceansareprotected.

Ambitiousandinnovativeinvestmentsintosolutions

Source:R.Tiffer-Sotomayor&C.Ramírez

ICOASTALANDMARINEBIODIVERSITYANDECOSYSTEMS

ManyAfricannationshavecommittedtovariousinternationalagreementsandconventionsthatseektoreducegreenhousegasemissionswhilesupportingadaptation,mitigation,andothermeasurestopreservethecontinent’snaturalcapital.TheseincludetheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals,theConventiononBiologicalDiversity,theConventiononClimateChange,Ramsar,andtheParisAgreement.Tomeettheconditionsofthesecommitments,whichincludetheupcomingadoptionofthe

post-2020GlobalBiodiversityFramework

,countrieswill

needtoengageinmeaningfulactionstoimprovetheprotectionandrestorationoftheirbluenaturalresources.Thisincludesmanagingcoastalandmarineecosystemsbetter,investingmoreintomonitoringmarineandcoastalspeciespopulations,andcontrollinginvasivespecies.

Achievingthesecommitmentswillalsorequireincreasedandurgentinvestmentintobuildingthecapacityofnationalandlocalagenciesinchargeofmarineandcoastalecosystems.ManyAfricancountrieslackessentialresources,knowledge,andskillstomeettheircoastalandmarinechallenges,includingaddressingillegal,unreported,andunregulatedfishing.

Strengthenedknowledgeofthemarineenvironment

InAfrica,asinacrosstheworld,informationoncoastalbiodiversityandmarineecosystemsislacking.KnowledgeonthestatusofspeciesthatareimportantforaBlueEconomyandsustainablemarinemanagementneedstobestrengthened.Forexample,moredataisneededaboutwhales,dolphins,turtles,andsportfishingspeciestosupportsustainableecotourism,whiledataonyellowfinandskipjacktuna,snappers,mollusks,shrimps,lobsters,andseacucumberswillsupportbothfisheriesandlocalfoodsecurity.

Enforcementandcollaboration

CountriesalongtheAfricancoastlinedesperatelyneedtoregaincontroloftheiroceansandaligninterestsintheirexclusiveeconomiczones.Coastalandat-seapatrollingofopenwatersisneededtoreduce

enormouslossesof

bluecapital

.Coordinationbetweennationalcentralagenciesandcoastalcities,districts,andcountiesiscrucial.Thedevelopmentandnurturingofpublicpartnershipswithallinvolvedactors,includingnon-governmentorganizations,beachmanagementunits,andtheprivatesector,isessential.

BLUEECONOMYFORRESILIENTAFRICAPROGRAMI7

HowtheWorldBank

GroupContributestoSolutions

?AdobeStock

Buildingtheknowledgeandskillsbase

Inadditiontosupportingactivitiestoexpandknowledgeofmarinebiodiversityandbuildthecapacityof

governmentfisheriesagencies,theWorldBank:

?BrokeredapartnershipwiththeEuropeanMarineSpatialAgencytoprovideAfricancountrieswithstate-of-the-artspatialdatathatwillhelpthemunderstandhow,forexample,pollutionisaffectingcorals,orhowcurrentsandwarmingtemperaturescanaffectfishstocksanddistribution.

?Helpedtoestablishregionalcoastal-marineplatformstosharedataandmonitorbiodiversityandclimate-relatedchangessuchasshorelineretreat,erosion,sea-levelrise,andfloodinginthecoastlinesandocean.Forexample,the

WestAfricaCoastalAreasManagement

Program

isdevelopingacoastalobservatoryfor17countriesintheregion.

?Freepik

?HelpedcountriesadoptaDNA-basedtooltoquicklyandinexpensivelydeterminethediversityofspeciespresentinalocalmarineecosystem.TheKenya-MarineFisheriesandSocio-EconomicDevelopment

projectwillusethetooltoincreaseknowledgeonthepriorityfisheriesandthecurrent

statusofcriticalecosystemsas

coralreefs.

HaltingthelossofbiodiversityalongAfrica’scoastlinewillstrengthenthecontinent’sresiliencetotheloomingeffectsofclimatechangewhileimprovingoutcomesforBlueEconomydevelopment,livelihoods,andnutritionsecurity.

Inadditiontoaddressingpollution,improvingthemanagementoffisheries,andothermeasuresdiscussedinthis

series

ofbriefs,theWorldBankhelpsvariousAfricancountriespreservetheirbiodiversityandstrengthentheirmarinehabitatsbyprovidingtechnicaladvisorytosupportpolicyandprogramdevelopment,buildingtheknowledgeandskillsbase,andsupportingfinancingprojectsandinitiatives.

$

Programs,projects,andinitiatives

TheWorldBanksupportsvariouscountryandregionalinitiativesthataimtoincreasetheresilienceandadaptationofAfrica’scoastalareas.Todate,theWorldBankhassupportedinitiativesthat:

Financial,technical,andanalyticalsupport

?Drawonnature-basedsolutionstoincreasecoastalresilience.InMauritania,forexample,biologicalandmechanicalfixationmethodswereusedtoprotectandreinforcecoastaldunesinNouakchott,thecountry’scapital.Prioritybeacheswerealsoreplenishedtoprotectthecityagainstmarinesubmersion.InBenin,Togo,andS?oToméePríncipe,

greyandgreeninterventions

wereusedtoimprovethestateofbeachesandcoastaldefenses,soincreasingthesecountries’resiliencetofloodingandcoastalerosion.Bothprojectswereimplementedunderthe

WestAfricaCoastalAreasManagementProgram

.

?Reduceharmfulfishingpractices.WithWorldBanksupport,Kenya,Tanzania,Mozambique,andMadagascarhaveimprovedtheirfisheriesstocksbystrengtheningthemonitoring,control,andsurveillanceoffishingactivitiesbothonshoreandintheopenseas.Thishasreducedoverfishingandthebycatchofnon-targetspeciessuchaswhales,porpoises,turtles,andbirds.InTanzania,theWorldBanksupportedimprovementsinmonitoring,control,andsurveillancethroughitsSouthWestIndianOceanFisheriesGovernanceandSharedGrowthprogram,SWIOFish.

?Strengthenformalprotectionsforcoastalandmarineareas.Amultisectoral,integratedblueprogramdevelopedbytheGovernmentofMozambique,withtheWorldBank’ssupport,hascontributedtoimportantpolicyandregulatoryshiftsandhelpedtosecureon-the-groundinvestmentstodevelopthecountry’sbluesector.Todate,theprogram’sflagshipcontributiontobiodiversityrestorationandconservationhasbeenpartneringwithlocalstakeholderstomergetheMaputoSpecialReserveandPontadoOuroPartialMarineReservetocreateanewnationalpark,theMaputoNationalPark,whichissurroundedbyanewMaputoEnvironmentalProtectionArea(MEPA),alsoestablishedthroughWorldBanksupport.NationalparkshavestrongerconservationstatusinMozambique,andthisdeclarationhaseffectivelysecuredthehabitatsofcoastalelephantsandnestingareasforseveralendangeredmarineturtlespecies.TheMEPAexpandstheconservationofoceanecosystemsfromthreenauticalmilesfromthecoastline(about5.5kilometers)to18nauticalmiles(33.3kilometers),effectivelysafeguardingecotourismandfisheriesresourcesforlocalcommunitiesinthearea.TheMEPAisalsojoinedtoSouthAfrica’siSimangalisoWetlandPark,ahotspotofbiodiversityandaWorldHeritageSite,creatingthefirsttransboundarymarinecorridorinSouthernAfrica.

TheWorldBankprovidesfinancialanalyticalandtechnicalsupporttohelpgovernmentsandregionalentitiescraftenablingpoliciesandregulations,whilebettertrackingthevalueofbluenaturalcapitalagainstthecostofchallengessuchaspollution.WorldBank’ssupporthasresultedin:

?ThedevelopmentofMozambique’s2020MarineFisheriesRegulations,includingtheintroductionofinnovativenewtoolsforthe

spatialco-managementoffisheries

inpartnershipwithlocalcommunities.Todate,co-managementplanshavebeendevelopedinthekeybiodiversityhotspotsofMomaandPebane.Amongothermeasures,theseplansincludeno-takeandconservationzones.ThisanalyticalworkwasdonethroughtheWorldBank’sSouthWestIndianOceanFisheriesGovernanceandSharedGrowthprogram(SWIOFish).

?BetterunderstandingofthecostofmarinepollutiontoTanzania.AnalysisbytheWorldBankhasestimatedthatmarineplasticpollutioninDaresSalaamcityandonZanzibar’sUngujaIslandiscostingthecountryUS$28.2million(US$17.7millionforUngujaIslandandUS$10.5millionforDaresSalaam)inlostrevenuefromtourism,fis