PowerElectronicsforElectricVehiclesandEnergyStorage

Thistextwillhelpreaderstogainknowledgeaboutdesigningpowerelectronicconvertersandtheircontrolforelectricvehicles.Itdiscussesthewaysinwhichpowerfromelectricvehiclebatteriesistransferredtoanelectricmotor,thetechnologyusedforchargingelectricvehiclebatteries,andenergystorage.Thetextcoverscasestudiesandreal-lifeexamplesrelatedtoelectricvehicles.

Thebook

?Discussesthelatestadvancesanddevelopmentsinthefieldofelectricvehicles

?Examinesthechallengesassociatedwiththeintegrationofrenewableenergysourceswithelectricvehicles

?Highlightsbasicunderstandingofthecharginginfrastructureforelectricvehicles

?Coversconceptsincludingthereliabilityofpowerconvertersinelectricvehicles,andbatterymanagementsystems.

Thisbookdiscussesthechallenges,emergingtechnologies,andrecentdevelopmentofpowerelectronicsforelectricvehicles.Itwillserveasanidealreferencetextforgraduatestudentsandacademicresearchersinthefieldsofelectricalengineering,electronicsandcommunicationengineering,environmentalengineering,automotiveengineering,andcomputerscience.

PowerElectronicsforElectricVehiclesandEnergyStorage

EmergingTechnologiesandDevelopments

EditedbyDharavathKishan,

RamaniKannan,BDastagiriReddy,andPrajofPrabhakaran

CRCPress

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Names:Kishan,Dharavath,editor.|Kannan,Ramani,editor.|Reddy,B.Dastagiri,editor.|P.,Prajof,editor.

Title:Powerelectronicsforelectricvehiclesandenergystorage:

emergingtechnologiesanddevelopments/editedbyDharavathKishan,RamaniKannan,B.DastagiriReddy,andPrajofP.

Description:Firstedition.|BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,[2023]|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

Identifiers:LCCN2022052983(print)|LCCN2022052984(ebook)|ISBN9781032164199(hbk)|ISBN9781032164243(pbk)|ISBN9781003248484(ebk)

Subjects:LCSH:Electricvehicles--Electronicequipment.|Electriccurrentconverters.|Batterychargers.|Powerelectronics.

Classification:LCCTL220.P682023(print)|LCCTL220(ebook)|DDC629.22/93--dc23/eng/20230110

LCrecordavailableat

/2022052983

LCebookrecordavailableat

/2022052984

ISBN:978-1-032-16419-9(hbk)ISBN:978-1-032-16424-3(pbk)ISBN:978-1-003-24848-4(ebk)DOI:

10.1201/9781003248484

TypesetinSabon

byDeantaGlobalPublishingServices,Chennai,India

Contents

Prefacevii

Editorbiographiesix

Listofcontributorsxiii

1Introductiontohybridelectricvehiclesystems1

VINUKUMARLUCKOSE,RAMANIKANNAN,ANDDHARAVATHKISHAN

2Onboardbatterycharginginfrastructureforelectrified

transportation27

HARISHKARNEDDIANDDEEPAKRONANKI

3DesignanddevelopmentofLLCresonantconverterfor

batterycharging61

AKASHGUPTAANDMAHMADASRAFAMULLA

4Performanceevaluationofmulti-inputconverter-basedbattery

chargingsystemforelectricvehicleapplications93

RKALPANA,KIRANR,ANDPPARTHIBAN

5Analysisofsolarpv-basedelectricvehiclecharging

infrastructurewithvehicle-to-gridpowerregulation117

SHEIKMOHAMMEDSULTHAN,MOHAMMEDMANSOORO,ANDULAGANATHANM

6Wirelesspowertransfer-basednext-generationelectricvehicle

chargingtechnology137

PRIYANKATIWARIANDDEEPAKRONANKI

viContents

7Asymmetricclampedmodecontrolforoutputvoltage

regulationinwirelessbatterychargingsystemforEV175

DHARAVATHKISHAN,MARUPURUVINOD,BDASTAGIRIREDDY,ANDRAMANIKANNAN

8SelectionofelectricdriveforEVswithemphasisonswitched

reluctancemotor193

PITTAMKRISHNAREDDY,PPARTHIBAN,ANDRKALPANA

9VoltageliftquasiZ-sourceinvertertopologiesfor

electricvehicles217

JOSEPHINERL,GOLLAPINNIVAISHNAVI,AKSHATHAPATIL,MSAIHARSHANAIDU,ANDRACHAPUTIBHANUPRAKASH

10Sensorlessrotorpositionestimationandregenerativebraking

capabilityofasolar-poweredelectricvehicledrivenbyPMSM245

VIJAYAPRIYAR,ARUNSL,ANDRAJAPITCHAMUTHU

11Performanceanalysisoftheintegrateddualinputconverter

forEVbatterychargingapplication271

KUDITIKAMALAPATHIANDPONUGOTHUSRINIVASARAONAYAK

Index301

Preface

Energyisacrucialresourcethatallcountriesaroundtheglobearepursu-ingtoensuretheircitizens’socialandeconomicwellbeing.Mostnationsaroundtheworld,however,faceinnumerablechallengesinprocuringade-quate,cheap,andsuitablesuppliesofenergysources.Forcountriesthatareheavilydependentonenergyimports,therearealwaysthreatsofenergydisruptionsandhighpricesofenergyresourcesduetopoliticalandeco-nomicissuesoccurringinanypartoftheworld.Furthermore,therearealsoconcernsrelatedtoenvironmentalpollutionandclimatechangearisingfromtheburningoffossilfuels.Inaworldwhereenergy/fuelsecurityandenvironmentalprotectionaregrowingconcerns,thedevelopmentofelectricandhybridelectricvehiclesisincreasingrapidly.

Electricvehicles(EVs)haverelativelyhighwell-to-wheelefficiency,henceprovidinghigherfueleconomyandsignificantlyreducingenvironmen-talpollution.Despitebeingacentury-oldconcept,EVswerenotpopularinthepastduetohighcost,limitedperformance,shortrange,andlongchargingtimes.However,withadvancementsinpowerelectronics,electricmotors,andtheinventionofhigh-performancebatteries,theperformanceofanEVhasdrasticallyincreasedandoutpoweredaconventionalinternalcombustionengine-basedvehicleintermsofperformance.InanEV,powerelectronicsmainlyprocessandcontroltheflowofelectricalenergyfromtheenergysource(i.e.,battery,fuelcell,hybridstorage,etc.)tothemotor.Powerelectronicsformthecorecomponentinplug-incharging.TheyalsoenablefastandwirelesschargingofEVbatteries.Today,EV’spowerelec-tronicsutilizewidebandgap(WBG)semiconductordevices(likesiliconcarbide[SiC]andgalliumnitride[GaN])forefficientcontrolandconversionofelectricpower.TheseWBGdevicescanwithstandhighertemperaturesandoperateathighfrequencieswithlowpowerlosses.Becauseofthesefeatures,theWBG-basedpowerconverteroffershighefficiencyandpowerdensity.Today,researchonpowerconvertersforEVapplicationsfocusesonnoveltopologiesanddesignsthatcanreducepartcountsandenablereliableandmodularcomponents.Researchonfastcharging,renewableenergyintegratedsolutions,charginginfrastructure,high-performanceand

viiiPreface

low-costmotordrivealgorithms,wirelesscharging,etc.,isgainingmomen-tumforEVapplications.

Inthisbook,wehaveattemptedtoincluderecentresearchfindings,challenges,emergingtechnologies,andrecentdevelopmentsintheapplica-tionofpowerelectronicstoelectricvehicles.Themajortopicscoveredinthisbookinclude:(i)introductiontoelectricandhybridelectricvehicles(Chapter1),(ii)onboardcharginginfrastructure(Chapter2),(iii)powerconvertertopologiesforEVapplications(Chapters3and4),(iv)integrationofrenewableenergyforEVandenergystorageapplications(Chapter5),(v)recentadvancementsinwirelesscharging(Chapters6and7),and(vi)electricdrives,algorithms,andtractioncontrolforEVs(Chapters8,9,10,and11).

Wewanttoacknowledgetheeffortsofvariousauthorswhohavecon-tributedtothisbookandtheassistanceofthestaffoftheCRCPress,Taylor&Francisteamtomakethisbookareality.

Editorbiographies

DharavathKishanreceivedtheBTechdegreeinElectricalandElectronicsEngineeringandMTechdegreeinPowerElectronicsfromJawaharlalNehruTechnologicalUniversityHyderabadin2011and2013,respec-tively,andhereceivedhisPhDdegreefromNationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliin2018.Currently,heisworkingasAssistantProfessorintheDepartmentofE&EEngineeringattheNationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnataka,Surathkal,India.PriortojoiningtheNationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnataka,heworkedasAssistantProfessorintheFacultyofScienceandTechnology,ICFAIFoundationforHigherEducation,Hyderabad.DrKishan’scurrentresearchinter-estsincludepowerelectronicsanditsapplicationsinelectricvehicles,wirelesspowertransferandtransportationelectrification.Hehaspub-lished22researchpapersinreputedjournalsandpeerreviewedinterna-tionalconferences.Hehasalsodeliveredguestlecturesatvariouseventsonwirelesspowertransferforelectricvehicles.HeisalsoanInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineersseniormemberandanIndustryApplicationsSocietymember.Hehasguidedfivemaster’slevelstudentsintheareaofpowerelectronicsandiscurrentlyguidingtwomaster’sandsixPhDstudentsintheareaofpowerelectronicapplicationsinelectricvehicles.

RamaniKannanreceivedtheBEngdegreefromBharathiyarUniversity,Coimbatore,India,andtheMEngandPhDdegreesinpowerelectron-icsanddrivesfromAnnaUniversity,Chennai,India.HeiscurrentlyaSeniorLecturerwithUniversitiTeknologiPETRONAS,SeriIskandar,Malaysia.Heholdsmorethan135publicationsinreputedinterna-tionalandnationaljournalsandconferences.Hisresearchinterestsincludepowerelectronics,inverters,modellingofinductionmotors,artificialintelligence,machinelearning,andoptimizationtechniques.Dr.KannanisaCharteredEngineer(CEng),UK,amemberoftheInstitutionofEngineers(India),andaseniormemberoftheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,theInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnology(UK),theIndianSocietyforTechnicalEducation,andthe

xEditorbiographies

InstituteofAdvancedEngineeringandScience.Hehasbeentherecipientofnumerousawardsrelatedtoresearchandteaching,andgrantsfromtheFundamentalResearchGrantScheme,theAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations-India,YayasanUniversitiTeknologiPETRONAS,theMinistryofEnergy,GreenTechnology&Water(Malaysia),andtheSexuallyTransmittedInfectionResearchFoundation.HeisanAssociateEditorforIEEEAccessandInternationalTransactionsonElectricalEnergySystems(Wiley).HewastheEditor-in-ChieffortheJournalofAsianScientificResearchfrom2011to2018.HeisalsoaRegionalEditorfortheInternationalJournalofComputerAidedEngineeringandTechnology,UK,andanAssociateEditorforAdvancedMaterialsScienceandTechnology.

BDastagiriReddyreceivedtheBTechdegreeinelectricalandelectronicsengineeringandtheMTechdegreeinpowerelectronicsfromJawaharlalNehruTechnologicalUniversity,Anantapur,India,in2009and2011,respectively,andthePhDdegreeinpowerelectronicsanditsapplicationstorenewableenergyfromNationalInstituteofTechnology,Tiruchirappalli,India,in2015.From2015to2018,heworkedasResearchFellowwiththeDepartmentofElectricalandComputerEngineering,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore.HealsoworkedasScientistwithABBGlobalIndustriesandServicesLimited,Chennai,India.Currently,heisworkingasAssistantProfessorintheDepartmentofE&EEngineeringatNationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnataka,Surathkal,India.Hisresearchinterestsincludepowerelectronics,renewableenergy,micro-grids,electricvehicles,marinepropulsion,high-voltagedirectcurrent,andflexiblealternatingcurrenttransmissionsystems.

PrajofPrabhakaranreceivedtheBTechdegreeinElectrical&ElectronicsEngineeringfromAmritaVishwaVidyapeetham(AmritaUniversity),Coimbatore,in2009,followedbytheMTechdegreeinPowerElectronicsfromthesameuniversityin2011.HereceivedthePhDdegreeinElectricalEngineeringfromtheIndianInstituteofTechnologyBombay,Mumbai,in2018.Hisdoctoralresearchwasfocusedondirectcurrentmicro-grids,andhehaspublishedfourInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineerstransactionsandfiveInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineersinternationalconferencesfromhisresearchwork.FromJuly2011toJune2013,heworkedasanAssistantProfessorintheElectrical&ElectronicsEngineeringdepartment,AmritaSchoolofEngineering,Coimbatore.FromJuly2013toJune2018,heworkedasateachingassistantandalabcoordinatorattheAppliedPowerElectronicsLab,IndianInstituteofTechnologyBombay.AfterabriefstintwithNationalInstituteofTechnologyCalicut,Kozhikode,asanAd-hocFacultydur-ingJuly–November2018,hejoinedtheTransportationSolutionsdepart-ment,L&TTechnologicalServices,Bangalore,whereheworkedforayearasaProjectLeadfortheresearchanddevelopmentofpowertrains

Editorbiographiesxi

andbatterymanagementsystemsforelectricvehicles.On4December2019,hejoinedtheNationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnataka,Surathkal,whereheiscurrentlyanAssistantProfessorintheDepartmentofElectricalandElectronicsEngineering.Hemainlyworksinthefieldofpowerelectronicswithafocusonrenewableenergysource-basedsys-tems,microgrids,andelectricvehicles.Dr.PrajofisareviewerforIEEEAccess,IEEETransactionsonPowerElectronics,IEEETransactionsonIndustrialElectronics,IEEETransactionsonSmartGrid,andIEEETransactionsonIndustryApplications.

Listofcontributors

SushantaBordoloi

NationalInstituteofTechnologyMizoramMizoram,India

SaranshChourey

EnergyInstituteBengaluru

CentreofRajivGandhiInstituteofPetroleumTechnologyBengaluru,India

AkashGupta

SardarVallabhbhaiNationalInstituteofTechnologySurat,India

RKalpana

NationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnatakaSurathkal,India

KuditiKamalapathi

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

RamaniKannan

ElectricalandElectronicsEngineeringUniversitiTeknologiPETRONAS

SeriIskandar

Perak,Malaysia

HarishKarneddi

IndianInstituteofTechnologyRoorkeeRoorkee

Uttarakhand,India

DharavathKishan

NationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnatakaSurathkal,India

xivListofcontributors

JosephineRL

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

ArunSL

VelloreInstituteofTechnologyVellore

TamilNadu,India

VinukumarLuckose

SEGiUniversity

PetalingJaya,Malaysia

UlaganathanM

PSNCollegeofEngineeringTirunelveli

TamilNadu,India

MahmadasrafAMulla

SardarVallabhbhaiNationalInstituteofTechnologySurat,India

M.SaiHarshaNaidu

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

PonugothuSrinivasaRaoNayak

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

MohammedMansoorO

TKMCollegeofEngineeringKollam

Kerala,India

PParthiban

NationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnatakaSurathkal,India

AkshathaPatil

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

RajaPitchamuthu

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

RachaputiBhanuPrakash

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

Listofcontributorsxv

KiranR

NationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnatakaSurathkal,India

VijayapriyaR

VelloreInstituteofTechnologyVellore

TamilNadu,India

BDastagiriReddy

NationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnatakaSurathkal,India

PittamKrishnaReddy

NationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnatakaSurathkal,India

DeepakRonanki

IndianInstituteofTechnologyMadrasChennai

TamilNadu,India

SheikMohammedS

UniversitiTeknologiBrunei

BandarSeriBegawan,BruneiDarussalam

PriyankaTiwari

IndianInstituteofTechnologyRoorkeeRoorkee

Uttarakhand,India

GollapinniVaishnavi

NationalInstituteofTechnologyTiruchirappalliTiruchirappalli,India

MarupuruVinod

NationalInstituteofTechnologyKarnatakaSurathkal,India

1Introductiontohybridelectric

vehiclesystems

VinukumarLuckose,RamaniKannan,andDharavathKishan

1.1Introduction

Theautomobileindustryhasmadeatremendouschangeinmodernsoci-etybyfulfillingpeople’smobilityneeds.Oneofthegreatestachievementsintheautomobileindustrywasthedevelopmentofinternalcombustionengine(ICE)vehicles.Thishasledtogreateruseofvehiclesinhumansoci-ety.However,theuseofICEvehiclescreatessevereenvironmentalpollu-tionworldwide.Oneeffectivewaytoreduceenvironmentalpollutionistoincreasetheefficiencyofenergyconversionbydevelopingrenewableandalternativeenergysources[1].Theinventionofelectricvehicles(EVs)ishelpingtheautomobileindustrytoovercometheseenvironmentalissues.

ThischapterexplainsthehistoricaldevelopmentofEVsystemsandprovidesanoverviewofEVdrivetechnologiesandhybridelectricvehi-cles(HEVs),varioushybridelectricdrivetechnologieswiththeiroperationmodes,andpowertrainconceptswiththelevel/degreeofhybridizationandthetypesofHEVbasedonthenatureofpowersources.

1.2Whatisanelectricvehicle?

AnEVisatransportationsystemthatuseselectricmotorsorthecombina-tionofelectricmotorsandtheICE.Thissystemleadstowardsthereductionofhazardousemissionsoffuelgas,improvementofvehicleperformance,increasedvehicleefficiency,andreducedconsumptionoffossilfuel[2].EVsystemscomprisefourmaindrivetechnologies.Thesearefuelcellelectricvehicles(FCEVs),batteryelectricvehicles(BEVs),HEVs,andplug-inHEVs(PHEVs).

1.3Historicaldevelopmentofelectricvehicles

In1769,Nicolas-JosephCugnotdesignedthefirststeam-poweredcar,whichwasconstructedbyM.Brezinwithheavymaterialsandwasabletotravelonaperfectlyflatsurface.TheICEcarwasdevelopedbyIsaacdeRivazin1807.ThefirstelectricalcarwasdevelopedbyRobertAndersonofAberdeen

DOI:10.1201/9781003248484-1

2Powerelectronicsforelectricvehicles

in1839.In1900,steam-poweredcarsweremanufacturedmoreintheindus-tryduetotheirhighefficiencyintermsofpowerandspeed.However,theirpoorfueleconomy,theneedtoheattheboilerbeforedrivingandthelossoffreshwaterforsteamoperationledtheautomobilemarkettothedevelop-mentofgasolinecars[3].Eventhoughgasolinecarsprovidedbetterpowerandutility,theywereverynoisyandunreliable[4]inoperation.Thisledtotheinventionofelectriccars.Electriccarsarenoiseless,relativelyeasytooperate,comfortable,clean,andeasytocontrol,producenotoxicemis-sions,andarefashionable.Atthebeginningof1900,electriccarswererunusingleadacidbatteries.From1890to1924,theproductionofelectriccars[1]increased,markingthegoldenageofEVs,withthehighestproductionin1912.However,duetolowerenergystorageandtheneedforfrequentbatteryrecharging,EVproductionwasdroppedattheendof1924.AfterthedownfallofEVproduction,therewasahighdemandforgasolinecarsintheautomobilemarketfrom1924to1960.Thenumberofgasstationsincreasedwiththeshortageofgasolineinthe1970s.Duringthissituation,engineersrealizedthatagasolineenginecombinedwithanelectricmotorcouldbegoodforfutureautomobilestoproducemodernhybridcars[1].

ThehistoricaldevelopmentofEVsinfourdifferentperiodsisshowninTable1.1.Theearlydevelopmentofelectriccarswasbetween1828to1867,calledthepre–electriccarage.ThegoldenageoftheEVindustrywasfrom1881to1910.Theproductionofelectriccarsdecreasedtremendouslyfrom1910to1969,thedarkageinEVhistory.Theregenerativebrakingconceptwasdevelopedin1978,andthishascausedthevehicleindustrytomovetowardsthemodernelectriccarage.

1.4Electricvehicledrivetechnologies,configurations,and

comparison

BasedonthedegreeofelectrificationasshowninFigure1.1,therearefourdifferentelectricdrivetechnologiestocontrolEVs.ThesearetheFCEV,BEV,HEV,andplug-inhybridelectricvehicle(PHEV)technologies[7].

1.4.1Fuelcellelectricvehicles(FCEVs)

Afuelcellisadevicethatgenerateselectricalenergybycombininghydrogenandoxygen.Whenhydrogenandoxygenarecombinedtogetherbychemicalreactions,theproductsarewater,electricity,andheat.Thetypeoffuelcellusedforvehicleandfuelcellapplicationsistheproton-exchangemembrane(PEM)[8].Thereactantsinfuelcellsarenotharmfultotheenvironment,asonlywaterisproducedduringthechemicalreaction[9].FCEVsareclassi-fiedintoconventionalFCEVsandhybridfuelcellvehicles.Figure1.2showsaconventionalFCEVsysteminwhichtherefinedhydrogengasisstoredinthefueltank.Thehydrogengaswillpassthroughthefuelcellstack,comedirectlyintocontactwiththeoxygenintheatmosphere,andgothroughachemicalreactionthatproduceselectricalenergy[10].Theelectricalenergy

Hybridelectricvehiclesystems3Table1.1HistoricalDevelopmentofElectricVehicles

Period

Year

Description

Pre–ElectricCarAge

1828

1834

1839

SmalltoyelectricvehiclebuiltbyAnyosJedlikusingamotor

BatteryelectricvehicledevelopedbyThomasDevenport

FirstelectricvehiclebuiltbyRobertAndersonofAberdeen

GoldenAge

1867

1881

1884

1888

1888

1890

ElectricallypoweredbicycleinventedbyFranzKravogl[4]

ElectricallypoweredtricycleinventedbyGustaveTrouve

ThomasParkerdevelopedanelectriccarwithahigh-capacityrechargeablebattery

Four-passengercarriagewith1-horsepower

motorand24-cellbatterybuiltbyImmisch&Company

ElectriccarwiththreewheelsdevelopedbyMagnusVolk

Firsthybridcar,theLohner-PorscheElektromobil,

DarkAges

1895

1896

1898

1900

1910–19201920–19501915

1959

createdbyFerdinandPorsche[1]

Six-passengerelectriccarbuiltbyWilliam

Morrison

Productionofelectricalstartermotorforgasolineengines

Thefirst-everspeedrecordsetinanelectriccar[4]Porschedevelopedtheserieshybridcar[1]

Endofelectricvehiclemanufacturingduetolargeproductionofpetroleumandcrudeoil

Limiteduseofelectricalvehiclesintheautomobileindustry[4]

ParallelhybridvehicleproductionbyWoodsmotorvehiclemanufacturers

Developmentofa“self-charging”battery-poweredcar

ModernElectricCarAge

1960

1978

1990

1993

2005

2008

2009

2009

2018

NumeroushybridcarsdesignedbyVictorWouk,knownas“GodfatheroftheHybrid”

DavidArthurs,anelectricalengineer,developedtheconceptofaregenerativebrakingsystem

Modernhybridcarsdeveloped

Numerousgovernmentagenciesandmanycar

manufacturersdevelopedHEVsusingalternateenergysources

FordcarcompanyreleasedHybridSUVin2005

TeslaRoadster,abattery-operatedelectricvehiclesportscarthattravelledmorethan200milespercharge,developed[5]

Chargingstationinfrastructurebeganglobally

TheElantraLPIwasoneofthefirstelectrichybridcars,runbyanICEfuelledbyLPGandlithium-ionpolymerbatteries[6]

TeslaRoadsterelectricsportscarlaunchedintospaceasdummypayload,carriedbyaFalconHeavytestflight

4Powerelectronicsforelectricvehicles

Figure1.1ClassificationofdifferenttypesofEV.

Figure1.2ConfigurationofFCV.

isthensuppliedtoadc–dcconverter,whichconvertsthefixeddirectcurrent(dc)tovariabledc.Furthermore,theelectricalpowerissuppliedtoadc–(ac)converterthatconvertsthedirectcurrenttoalternatingcurrent(ac)todrivetheelectricalmotor.Inadditiontothefuelcell,arechargeablebatteryisusedtosupplytheextrapowertothevehicleduringshortaccelerationandwhenthefuelcellisoff.Therechargeablebatterycanbechargedduringbrakingorcanbechargedexternally