考研講義6

PsycholinguisticsTeachingobjectives:

thelearnerswillbebetterabletoknowsomebasictheoriesinpsycholinguisticsandcognitivelinguistics.TeachingFocus:languageacquisition,languagecomprehension,languageproduction,categorizationandmetaphorTeachingMethodsandStrategies:

teacherpresentationandclassdiscussionChapter6LanguageandCognition

TeachingProcedures1.Cognition2.Psycholinguistics2.1Languageacquisition2.2Languagecomprehension2.3Languageproduction3.CognitiveLinguistics3.1Categorization3.2Metaphor3.3Metonymy4.Task1.WhatisCognition?Mentalprocesses,informationprocessingMentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.Theformalapproach（形式法）:structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproach（心理學方法）:languagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.Theconceptualapproach（認知法）:howlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.2.PsycholinguisticsPsychologicalaspectsoflanguage.Psychologicalstatesandmentalactivitywiththeuseoflanguage.Languageacquisition,languageproduction&comprehension.Languageacquisition(L1/L2)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognitionSixsubjectsofresearch2.1LanguageAcquisition---Howlanguageisrepresentedinthemindandhowlanguageisacquired?(1)Holophrasticstage（單詞句階段）Language’ssoundpatternsPhoneticdistinctionsinparents’language.One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.(2)Two-wordstage:around18mChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeWantcookieIwantacookieRequestMoremilkIwantsomemoremilkRequestJoeseeI(Joe)seeyouInformingMycupThisismycupWarningMommychairThischairbelongstoMWarningBigboyIamabigboyBraggingRedcarThatcarisredNamingThatcarThatisacarNamingChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeNosleepIdon’twanttogotosleepRefusalNottiredIamnottiredRefusalWheredoll?Whereisthedoll?QuestionTrucktableThetruckisonthetableInformingDaddyrunDaddyisrunningInformingJoepushI(Joe)pushed(thecat)InformingPushcatIpushedthecarInformingGivecandyGivemethecandyRequest(3)Three-word-utterancestageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.(4)FluentgrammaticalconversationstageEmbedoneconstituentinsideanother:Givedoggiepaper.

Givebigdoggiepaper.Usemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)bytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsofalllanguageareacquiredbeforethechildturnsfour.2.2Languagecomprehension---Howdopeopleusetheirknowledgeoflanguage,andhowdotheyunderstandwhattheyhearorread?

Mentallexicon:informationaboutthepropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstandinglanguage.Itincludeslinguisticknowledge:meaning,spelling,pronunciation,collocationoftheword.non-linguisticknowledge:encyclopedicknowledge,personalexperience,etc.Wordretrievalmodel(1)Wordrecognition1）Cohortmodel（群集模式）

2）

Interactivemodel（交互模式）3）

Racemodel（競爭模式）

1)Cohorttheory（集群理論）Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978,1980,1981,1990)Ithypothesizesthatauditorywordrecognitionbeginswiththeformationofagroupofwordsattheperceptionoftheinitialsoundandproceedssoundbysoundwiththecohortofwordsdecreasingasmoresoundsareperceived.eg.,Paulgotajobattheca-…Wordcandidates:candy,cash,candle,cashier,camp…2)Interactivemodel（交互模式）Theoreticalbasis:connectionism聯結主義理論Interactiveactivation:

proposedbyRumelhart&

McClelland（1981）“交互作用模型”

這個模型假設語言的加工過程不僅包含自下而上的加工過程(bottom-upprocess)，也包含自上而下（top-downprocess）的過程。而且這兩種過程可以在同一時間互相作用。eg:a)“小明和小張在切蛋糕”

b)word-superiorityeffect“詞優效應”

2)Interactivemodel（交互理論）:Higherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Lexicalknowledgecanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.Thereisinteractivityintheformoflexicaleffectsontheperceptionofsub-lexicalunits.Incertaincases,listeners’knowledgeofwordscanleadtotheinhibitionofcertainphonemes;inothercases,listenerscontinueto“hear”phonemesthathavebeenremovedfromthespeechsignalandreplacedbynoise.3)Racemodel:Pre-lexicalroute:computesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignalLexicalroute:thephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessedWhenword-levelinformationappearstoaffectalower-levelprocess,itisassumedthatthelexicalroutewontherace.Factorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect（頻率效應）:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheL.Recencyeffects（近期效應）:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.Context:Werecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.Lexicalambiguity(詞匯歧義)Allthemeaningsrelatedtothewordareaccessed獲取.Onlyonemeaningisaccessedinitially.Areyouengaged?Myfrienddrovemetothebank.Theypassedtheportatmidnight.Pleasegivemeacamel.上課做手術Theclerk(entering):Areyouengaged?Augustus:Whatbusinessisthatofyours?However,ifyouwilltakethetroubletoreadthesocietypapersforthisweek,youwillseethatIamengagedtotheHonourableLucyPopham,youngestdaughterof...Theclerk:Thatisn’twhatImean.Canyouseeafemale?Augustus:Ofcourse,Icanseeafemaleaseasilyasamale.DoyousupposeIamblind?(GeorgeBernardShaw:AugustusDoesHisBit)(2)ComprehensionofsentencesSerialmodels(串行模式):

Processesthatoccuroneatatime.Thesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowsconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammar.Describehowtheprocessorquicklyconstructsoneormorerepresentationsofasentencebasedonarestrictedrangeofinformationthatisguaranteedtoberelevanttoitsinterpretation,primarilygrammaticalinformation.Anysuchrepresentationisthenquicklyinterpretedandevaluated,usingthefullrangeofinformationthatmightberelevant.Parallelmodels(并行模式):

Whentwoormoreprocessestakeplaceatthesametime.Theyemphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Describehowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatlistenersandreadersintegrategrammaticalandsituationalknowledgeinunderstandingasentence.Comprehensionofwrittenandspokenlanguagecanbedifficultbecauseitisnotalwayseasytoidentifytheconstituents

(phrases)ofasentenceandthewaysinwhichtheyrelatetooneanother.

Psycholinguistshaveproposedprinciplesinterpretingsentencecomprehensionwithrespecttothegrammaticalconstraints.Structuralfactorsincomprehension

理解中的結構性因素Minimalattachment(最小接觸理論):

the“structurallysimpler”--structuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.人們解釋句子結構時，一開始構建的是最簡（或者說最小復雜性）句法結構，這種觀點叫做最少接觸理論。Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.Gardenpathsentences花園小徑句Oneinterestingphenomenonconcerningcertainambiguoussentencesiscalledthe“gardenpath”.

Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Themanwhohuntsducksoutonweekends.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.Gardenpathsentencesaresentencesthatareinitiallyinterpretedwithadifferentstructurethantheyactuallyhave.Ittypicallytakesquitealongtimetofigureoutwhattheotherstructureisifthefirstchoiceturnsouttobeincorrect.Sometimespeopleneverfigureitout.Theyhavebeen“ledupthegardenpath”,fooledintothinkingthesentencehasadifferentstructurethanithas.Reducedrelativeclausesquitefrequentlycausethisfeelingofhavingbeengarden-pathed.

花園小徑句就是那些實際解釋不同于我們一開始所想結構的句子。如果證明開始的選擇是錯誤的，就要花相當長的一段時間來找出另外一種結構。有時甚至永遠也找不出來，他們被“引到花園小徑中去了，被”騙“去思索句子的另外一種結構，而非其表面上顯示的。降級關系從句經常使人有這種走入花園小徑的感覺。Lexicalfactorsincomprehension

Thehumansentenceprocessorisprimarilyguidedbyinformationaboutspecificwordsthatisstoredinthelexicon.Thesalesmanglancedata/thecustomerwithsuspicion/rippedjeans.Thesalesmanglancedatacustomerwithsuspicion;Thesalesmanglancedatthecustomerwithsuspicion;Thesalesmanglancedatacustomerwithrippedjeans;Thesalesmanglancedatthecustomerwithrippedjeans;Thesalesmanglancedatacustomer

withsuspicion.Thesalesmanglancedatacustomer

withrippedjeans.Thesalesmanglancedat

thecustomer

withsuspicion.Thesalesmanglancedat

thecustomer

withrippedjeans.SyntacticambiguityDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.Ambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.Johnpaintedthecarinthegarage.Maylikesthevaseonthecupboardwhichsheboughtyesterday.Thestudentswilldiscusstheirplantoholdadancingpartyintheclassroom.IknowSimonbetterthanyou.Tellmeifyouhavetime.Mybrotherwasn’treadingallthetime.ThechairmanappointedMr.Brownanassistant.Thescholarwrotelongthesisandbooks.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.(3)ComprehensionoftextResonancemodel共振模式:

informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.Discourseinterpretation

SchemataanddrawinginferencesSchema(圖式):apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.[RESTAURANT]Schema:Entering,ordering,eatingandexiting.EnteringScene:Thecustomerentersarestaurant,looksforatable,decideswheretosit,walkstothetable…Johnwentintoarestaurant.Heaskedthewaitressforcoqauvin.Heateit,paidthebillandleft.(perfectlyunderstandable)Johnwentintoarestaurant.Hesawawaitress.Hegotupandwenthome.(doesnotseemtomakesense)Apartmentforrent.$500.Istoppedtogetsomegroceriesbutthereweren'tanybasketsleftsobythetimeIarrivedatthecheck-outcounterImusthavelookedlikeajugglerhavingabadday.A:Wouldyoulikeacoffee? B:Yes,please. … B:Noandno. A:Right.一天，我在看中央三臺的中國音樂電視。我正看得津津有味的時候，老媽回來了說：“這是誰啊？”當時正是龍寬九段在唱歌。我就說：“龍寬九段。”這時，老媽一本正經的問：“九段？下圍棋的啊？她還能唱歌啊？”Pragmaticambiguity(語用歧義)Thereisaflyinmysoup.TodayisSunday.“Doyouenjoysittingbesideme?”sheaskedcoldly.“Oh,no,”Isaid.“Well,youarenotwantedhere.” (W.E.B.DuBois,“OnBeingCrazy”)2.3Languageproduction---Howdotheyproducemessagethatotherscanunderstandinturn?TwoformsoflanguageproductionSpeechproductionWriting2.3.1Speechproduction(1)AccesstowordsConceptualization:whattoexpressWordselection:acompetitiveprocessMorpho-phonologicalencoding:targetwords(2)GenerationofsentencesConceptualpreparation:decidingwhattosay–aglobalplanisneededWordretrieval詞匯檢索andapplicationofsyntacticknowledge2processesofsentencegenerationFunctionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctionsPositionalencoding:gettingintopositionsforeachunitSimilartospokenlanguage.Orthographicforminsteadofphonologicalform.However,phonologyplaysanimportantroleinthisprocess.Writershavemoretimeavailableforconceptualpreparationandplanning.2.3.2Writtenlanguageproduction3.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitionisthewaywethink.Cognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.ThreemainapproachesTheExperientialView經驗觀TheProminenceView凸顯觀TheAttentionalView注意觀ExperientialviewCar:

abox-likeshape,wheels,doors,windows

comfort,speed,mobility,independence,socialstatusProminenceviewTheselectionandarrangementoftheinformationthatisexpressed.Thecarcrashedintothetree.Thetreeishitbythecar.AttentionalviewWhatweactuallyexpressreflectswhichpartsofaneventattractourattention.Thecarcrashedintothetree.Howthecarstartedtoswerve;Howitskiddedacrosstheroad;Howitrumbledontotheverge.3.1Construal(識解)Construal:theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways1.Attention/salience(注意力／突顯)Weactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatwearethinkingabout.Wedrovealongtheroad.Sheranacrosstheroad.Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.2.Judgment/Comparison(判斷和對比),Figure/Ground

（圖形和背景）Wecannotattendtoallfacetsofasceneatthesametime.

Wecannotpayattentiontoeverything.Instead,wefocusoneventsofparticularsalience.Figure-groundorganization

Thegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureisthusmoreprominent,orevenmoreinteresting,thantheground.Figure-groundreversalFigure-groundalsoseemstoapplytoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Inordertodistinguishbetweenstationaryanddynamicfigure-groundrelations,somecognitivelinguists(egRonaldLangacker)usethetermtrajector（射體）foramovingfigureandlandmark（路標）

forthegroundofamovingfigure.There’sacat[figure]onthemat[ground].Therearestillsomepeanuts[figure]inthebag[ground].Batman[figure]wasstandingontheroof[ground].Thecomputer[figure]underthetable[ground]ismine.Thespacecraft[figure]washoveringoverMetropolis[ground].Tarzan[trajector]jumpedintotheriver[landmark].Spiderman[trajector]climbedupthewall[landmark].Thebird[trajector]wingeditswayoutthewindow[landmark].We[trajector]wentacrossthefield[landmark].I[trajector]’mgoingtoLondon[landmark].3.Perspective視角

generallydependsontwothings.wherewearesituatedinrelationtothescenewe'reviewing.howthesceneisarrangedinrelationtooursituatedness（位置）.Themanisinfrontofthetree.Thetreeisbehindtheman.Thetreeisinfrontoftheman.Themanisbehindthetree.3.2Categorization（范疇化）Theprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.AmajoringredientinthecreationofhumanknowledgeAllowsustorelatepresentexperiencestopastonesThreelevels:basiclevel（基本層次）superordinatelevel（上義層次）subordinatelevel（下義層次）.原型理論Prototypes：thebestexamplesofacategory作用原形范疇的特點：成員之間享有家族相似性成員之間的地位不是平等的，具有中心成員和邊緣成員之分行為&事件范疇含義也符合原型理論例子：lie&whitelie也包含三個層次例子：move-walk-limp，hobble，amble，wander例子：meal-breakfast-fastbreakfast3.3ImageSchema（意象圖式）Johnson,Mark.1987.Thebodyinthemind:Thebodilybasisofmeaning,imagination,andreason.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Animage-schemaisa“skeletal”mentalrepresentationofarecurrentpatternofembodied(especiallyspatialorkinesthetic)experience.意象圖式是在對事物之間基本關系的認知的基礎上所構成的認知結構Theyarehighlyschematicrepresentationsofperceptuallygroundedexperience.Theyemergefromourembodiedinteractionswiththeworld.世界認知的兩個層面事物認識事物范疇其關系認識其關系意象圖式（1）Center-peripheryschema

(中心－邊緣圖式)Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore.Examples(English):ThestructureofanappleAnindividual’sperceptualsphereAnindividual’ssocialsphere,withfamilyandfriendsatthecoreandothershavingdegreesofperipherality

Center-peripheryschema---來自人對人體生理的感受。它的生理和物質基礎在于人體具有中心（軀體和內臟器官）和邊緣（手指、腳趾、頭發等）；同樣，樹木和植物有樹干、樹枝、樹葉。中心是重要的；邊緣是不重要的，邊緣依賴中心而存在。這些體驗和感受被投射到其他經驗域，形成了中心邊緣圖示隱喻。eg:a.Beijingisthepoliticalcenterofourcountry.b.There’snoneedtosplithairsovertheexactcostofthehouse.c.Hecasuallyleafedthroughthebook.

（2）Containmentschema

（容器圖式）Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundaryenclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.Bodilyexperience:humanbodiesascontainers.Structuralelements:interior,boundary,exteriorBasiclogic:ForallA,X,eitherIN(X,A)ornot.ForallA,B,X,ifCONTAINER(A)andCONTAINER(B)andIN(A,B)andIN(X,A),thenIN(X,B).

Theshipiscomingintoview.She’sdeepinthought.Westoodinsilence.Containmentschema（容器圖式）eg:a.Itakeoutabottleofmilkfromtherefrigerator.b.Ipourthemilkoutofthebottle.c.Shewalkedintotheroom.以上例句都與“容器”有關。我把錢裝進口袋這個“容器”，走出銀行這個“容器”，再進入另一個“容器”轎車。經過無數次“容器”的經驗，我們頭腦中就會形成一個“容器”的意象圖式。（3）Cycleschema

（循環圖式）Involvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:AstartingpointAprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktrackingAreturntotheinitialstateTheschemaoftenhassuperimposedonitastructurethatbuildstowardaclimaxandthengoesthroughareleaseordecline.Examples(English)DaysWeeksYearsSleepingandwakingBreathingCirculationEmotionalbuildupandrelease（4）End-of-pathschema

Animageschemainwhichalocationisunderstoodastheterminationofaprescribedpath.Example(English):Inthefollowingsentence,itisunderstoodthatonemusttraversethehillbeforereachingSam’shome,whichisattheendofthepath:Samlivesoverthehill.

想象移動物體走過的路徑，之后注意力集中在物體停止的地方。例如：觀察足球運動員踢入球門內，并停在那里。（5）Forceschema

（力圖式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.Itincludesthefollowingelements:AsourceandtargetoftheforceAdirectionandintensityoftheforceApathofmotionofthesourceand/ortargetAsequenceofcausationExamples(English):Physical:Wind,GravityStructuralelements:force,path,entity,etc.Interaction,directionality,causalityCompulsionBlockageCounterforceDiversionRemovalofrestraint（6）Linkschema（連接圖式）Consistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andthebondbetweenthem.

EntityA EntityBExamples(English):Achildholdinghermother’shandSomeonepluggingalampintothewallAcausal“connection”Kinship“ties”

連接圖式形成的生物和物質基礎是人的第一連接物是臍帶。臍帶是兩個生命體的連接，因此，人們把社交和人際關系看成是一種連接關系，這種連接關系維系了個體與社會、社會與社會、個體與個體的關系。這種關系也是建構隱喻的源泉。eg:a.Marriageisachainb.Thepassedlawwillbreakthesocialties.c.Slaveryisfettersandmanacles.

（7）

Part-wholeschema

（部分整體圖式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.Examples(English):Physical:ThebodyanditspartsMetaphorical:Thefamily; ThecastestructureofIndiaPart-wholeschema

（部分整體圖式）

部分-整體圖式形成的生理和物質基礎是人本身以及其他物體是由部分組成的整體。在此圖示中，只有部分存在于同一結構中才構成整體。人的經驗將家庭及其他社會團體視為由部分組成的整體，離婚被視為“解體”（splittingup）。在印度，社會被看做由等級組成的整體---最高級為“首”（head），最低級為“腳”（feet），等級制度參照人體結構來理解和表達。eg:a.WhotoldyouthatMaryandIhadsplitup?b.Heistheheadofourdepartment.（8）

Pathschema（路徑圖式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.Examples(English):Physical:Paths;TrajectoriesMetaphorical:Thepurpose-as-physical-goalmetaphor,asexpressedinthefollowingsentences:Tomhasgonealongwaytowardchanginghispersonality.Youhavereachedthemidpointofyourflighttraining.She'sjuststartingouttomakeherfortune.Janewassidetrackedinhersearchforself-understanding.（9）

Scaleschema

（等級圖式）Involvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount,andconsistsofanyofthefollowing:Aclosed-oropen-endedprogressionofamountApositionintheprogressionofamountOneormorenormsofamountAcalibrationofamount

Examples:PhysicalamountsPropertiesinthenumbersystemEconomicentitiessuchassupplyanddemand（10）Verticalityschema（上下圖式）Involves“up”and“down”relations.Examples:StandinguprightClimbingstairsViewingaflagpoleWatchingwaterriseinatubVerticalityschema（上下圖式）

研究表明，“上-下（up-down）”概念在最初形成階段都是純空間概念。然而，經過人類多年的使用和發展，“上-下（up-down）”概念從原有的空間意義中拓展出豐富的隱喻意義。

“上-下（up-down）”圖式的形成有其生理和物質基礎，人是直立行走的動物，頭在上，腳在下；人和多數哺乳動物睡覺時躺下，醒后站立起來，正常人以站姿和坐姿完成日常生活的絕大部分內容；人死后均倒下。由于有這樣的體驗和感受，人類把這種體驗和感受投射到其他目標域，形成“上-下（up-down）”圖式隱喻，因此人類得出了Goodisup,badisdown.Happyisup,sadisdown.這一隱喻圖式。eg:a.I’mfeelinguptoday.b.Hecamedownwithflu.c.如果他當上書記，很可能是造福百姓的好書記。3.4Metaphor（隱喻）GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980).MetaphorsWeLiveBy.UniversityofChicagoPress.ConceptualMetaphorTheory

(概念隱喻理論)Metaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping（概念映射）,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother（從一個語域到另一個語域）,notfromawordtoanother.類型---常規隱喻含義：指隱喻意義已成為詞匯的部分含義，已收入辭典中，成為約定俗成的字面含義。類型實體隱喻ontologicalmetaphor結構隱喻StructuralMetaphor

方位隱喻OrientationalMetaphor含義：人們將抽象的和模糊的思想，感情，心理活動，事件，狀態等無形的概念看做是具體的，有形的實體，因而可以對其進行談論，量化，識別其特征及原因等。Targetdomain（目標域）-whatisactuallybeingtalkedabout.Sourcedomain（源域）-thedomainusedasabasisforunderstandingtargetOntologicalcorrespondence（本體對應）Epistemiccorrespondence（認知對應）

Targetdomain SourcedomainRATIONALARGUMENTWAR

1）OntologicalMetaphor(實體隱喻)Theepistemiccorrespondence(認知對應)Example:LIFEISAJOURNEYOntologicalcorrespondence（本體對應）source:JOURNEYtarget:LIFESTARTINGPOINTBIRTHTRAVELERPERSONPATHAGINGDESTINATIONDEATHOBSTACLESPROBLEMSINLIFECROSSROADSCHOICESEpistemiccorrespondence

(認知對應)TRAVELERLEAVESSTARTINGPOINTPERSONISBORNTRAVELERTRAVELSALONGPATHPERSONAGESTRAVELERFACESACROSSROADPERSONMUSTTAKEACHOICETRAVELERFACESANOBSTACLEPERSONHADPROBLEMSINLIFETRAVELERREACHESDESTINATIONPERSONDIES2）StructuralMetaphor

(結構隱喻)含義：指以一種概念的結構來構造另一種概念，使兩種概念相疊加，使談論一種概念的各方面的詞語用于談論另一概念。

Providesrichhighlystructured,clearlydelineatedsourcedomaintostructuretargetdomain.Thenatureofthemapping:

Themappinginvolvestwotypesofcorrespondencebetweentargetandsourcedomain,whicharebothgroundedinourexperiencesintheworld.Example:ARGUMENTISWAR:Yourclaimsareindefensible.Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument.Hiscriticismswererightontarget.Idemolishedhisargument.I’veneverwonanargumentwithhim.Youdisagree?OK,shoot!Ifyouusethatstrategy,he’llwipeyouout.Heshotdownallofmyarguments.3）OrientationalMetaphor

(方位隱喻)含義：指參照空間方位而組建的一系列隱喻概念。GivesaconceptaspatialorientationCharacterizedbyaco-occurrenceinourexperienceGroundedinanexperientialbasis,whichlinktogetherthetwopartsofthemetaphorThelinkverb“is”,partofthemetaphor,shouldbeseenasthelinkoftwodifferentco-occurringexperiences.Forexample,MOREISUPThestockpriceskeeprisingthesedays.Thenumberoferrshemadeisincrediblylow.科學技術使農業生產逐年提高。

Thismetaphorisgroundedintheco-occurrenceoftwodifferentkindsofexperiences:addingmoreofasubstance,andperceivingthelevelofthesubstancerise.Examples:HAPPYISUP;SADISDOWNThatboostedmyspirits.I’mfeelingdown.I’mdepressed.CONSCIOUSISUP;UNCONSCIOUSISDOWNWakeup.Hefellasleep.He’sunderhypnosis.3.5Metonymy（換喻，轉喻）Itisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle（源域）,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget（目標域）,withinthesamedomain.Thereferencepointactivatesthetarget.Itismodeledasidealizedcognitivemodels(ICMs)byLakoff(1987),conceptualmappingsbyRadden&Kovecses(1999),domainhighlightingbyCroft(2002),combinationsofmappingsandhighlightingbyRuizdeMendoza(2000),scenariosbyPanther&Thornburg(1999)andmoregenerallyasreference-pointactivationbyLangacker(1999)andBarcelona(2000).Onthebasisoftheontologicalrealms,wemaydistinguishthreecategories:theworldof“concept”theworldof“form”theworldof“things”and“events”Theyroughlycorrespondtothethreeentitiesthatcomprisethewell-knownsemantictriangle.TheinterrelationsbetweenentitiesofthesameorfromdifferentontologicalrealmsleadtovariousICMsandpossibilitiesformetonymy.Thus,wehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:SignICMs,ReferenceICMsandConceptICMs.

Twogeneralconceptualconfigurations:wholeICManditspart(s)partsofanICM.(1)WholeICManditspart(s)(i)Thing-and-PartICM,whichmayleadtotwometonymicvariants:WHOLETHINGFORAPARTORTHETHING:Americafor“UnitedStates”PARTOFATHNGFORTHEWHOLETHING:Englandfor“GreatBritain”(ii)ScaleICM.Scalesareaspecialclassofthingsandthescalarunitsarepartsofthem.Typically,ascaleasawholeisusedforitsupperendandtheupperendofascaleisusedtostandforthescaleasawhole:WHOLESCALEFORUPPERENDOFTHESCALE:Henryisspeedingagainfor“Henryisgoingtoofast.”UPPERENDOFASCALEFORWHOLESCALE:Howoldareyou?for“whatisyourage?”(iii)ConstitutionICM.Itinvolvesmatter,materialorsubstanceswhichareseenasconstitutingathing.OBJECTFORMATERIALCONSTITUTINGTHEOBJECT:Ismellskunk.MATERIALCONSTITUTINGANOBJECTFORTHEOBJECT:woodfor“forest”

；我喜歡純棉。(iv)EventICM.Eventsmaybemetaphoricallyviewedasthingswhichmayhaveparts.WHOLEEVENTFORSUBEVENT:Billsmokedmarijuana.SUBEVENTFORWHOLEEVENT:MaryspeaksSpanish.(v)Category-and-MemberICM.Acategoryanditsmembersstandinakindofrelation.CATEGORYFORAMEMBEROFTHECATEGORY:thepillfor“birthcontrolpill”MEMBEROF