......Unit4OrganizationandInstitutionTextAPreparatoryWork(1)a.Institutionalization:referstotheprocessofembeddingsomeconception(forexampleabelief,norm,socialrole,particularvalueormodeofbehavior)withinanorganization,socialsystem,orsocietyasawhole.Thetermmayalsobeusedtorefertocommittingaparticularindividualorgrouptoaninstitution,suchasamentalorwelfareinstitution.b.Solitaryconfinement:isaformofimprisonmentinwhichaninmateisisolatedfromanyhumancontact,oftenwiththeexceptionofmembersofprisonstaff.Itismostlyemployedasaformofpunishmentbeyondincarcerationforaprisoner,usuallyforviolationsofprisonregulations.However,itisalsousedasanadditionalmeasureofprotectionforvulnerableinmates.Inthecaseprisonersathighriskofsuicide,itcanbeusedtopreventaccesstoitemsthatcouldallowtheprisonertoself-harm.c.Parole:istheprovisionalreleaseofaprisonerwhoagreestocertainconditionspriortothecompletionofthemaximumsentenceperiod.Aspecifictypeofparoleismedicalparoleorcompassionatereleasewhichisthereleaseofprisonersonmedicalorhumanitariangrounds.Conditionsofparoleoftenincludethingssuchasobeyingthelaw,refrainingfromdrugandalcoholuse,avoidingcontactwiththeparolee’svictims,obtaining參考材料......employment,andmaintainingrequiredcontactswithaparoleofficer.d.Rehabilitation:isthere-integrationintosocietyofaconvictedpersonandthemainobjectiveofmodernpenalpolicy,tocounterhabitualoffending,alsoknownascriminalrecidivism.Alternativestoimprisonmentalsoexist,suchascommunityservice,probationorders,andothersentailingguidanceandaftercaretowardstheoffender.(2)Mainpublications:InfluencingAttitudesandChangingBehavior(2nded.).Reading,MA:AddisonWesley.,1977,Psychology(3rdEdition),Reading,MA:AddisonWesleyPublishingCo.,1999,PsychologyAndLife,17/e,Allyn&BaconPublishing,2005,TheLuciferEffect:UnderstandingHowGoodPeopleTurnEvil,RandomHouse,NewYork,2007Mainresearchinterests:socialpsychology,particularlyprisonstudy,socialintensitysyndromestudy(relatedtodischargedsoldiers).(3)NameofexperimentDescriptionoftheRelationoftheexperimentexperimentwiththetextExperimentobedienceonAseriesofsocialCloselyrelatedwiththepsychologyexperimentstextsincetheyareallconductedbyYaleabouttheeffectofUniversitypsychologistassignedroles.StanleyMilgram.They參考材料......measuredthewillingnessofstudyparticipants,menfromadiverserangeofwithoccupationsvaryinglevelsofeducation,toobeyanauthorityfigurewhoinstructedthemtoperformactsconflictingwiththeirpersonalconscience;experimentthefound,unexpectedly,thataveryhighproportionofpeoplewerepreparedtoobey,albeitifunwillingly,evenapparentlycausingseriousinjuryanddistress.Small-worldexperimentThesmall-worldNotcloselyrelatedwith參考材料......(sixdegreesofexperimentcomprisedthetextsincetheexperimentsexperimentisaboutconductedbyStanleysocialotherbetweenindividualsinseparation)severalnetworkingMilgramandresearchersexaminingtheUnitedStates.theaveragepathlengthforsocialnetworksofpeopleintheUnitedStates.Theresearchwasgroundbreakinginthatitsuggestedthathumansocietyisasmall-world-typenetworkcharacterizedbyshortpath-lengths.Theexperimentsareoftenassociatedwiththephrase“sixdegreesofseparation”,althoughMilgramdidnotusethistermhimself.參考材料......CriticalReadingI.Understandingthetext1.PartI.Para(s)MainideaAnecdoteand1-2AcaseshowingthenecessityforprisonreformintroductionII.Body3-10experiment)(theTheexperimentofamockprisonwithguardsandprisonerswerecarriedoutandhadtoendearlierbecauseofthefrighteningeffect.III.Findings11-13Individualbehaviorislargely(implication)underthecontrolofsocialforcesandenvironmentalcontingenciesratherthanpersonalitytraits,character,willpower,orotherempiricallyun-validatedconstructs.IV.Conclusion14(effectsofTheprisonsituationisprison)guaranteedtogenerateseverepathologicalreactionsinbothguardsandprisonersasto參考材料......debasetheirhumanity,andmakeitdifficultforthemtobepartofasocietyoutsideoftheirprison.2.(1)Zimbardousesthespecificexampleofparisoner’ssituationtodpleaforprisonreformandtojustifytheexperimentheconductedaboutthebadeffectofprison.(2)Theyconductanexperimentabouttheeffectsofprisononbothguardsandprisoners.(3)Theywanttounderstandwhatitmeanspsychologicallytobeaprisoneroraprisonguard.(4)The24participantsareselectedrandomlyfromvolunteerstudentsinPaloAltocityandtheywererandomlyassignedrolesofguardsandprisonersinasimulatedprison.(5)AtStanfordUniversityin1971.(6)Theexperimenthastobeendedearlierthanplanned.(7)Becausetheeffectsofprison(abusingandbeingabused)onthosebeingexperimentedarefrightening.(8)Theresultsshowthatpeopleunderestimatethepowerandpervasivenessofsituationalcontrolsoverbehavior.(9)Individualbehaviorislargelyunderthecontrolofsocialforcesand參考材料......environmentalcontingenciesratherthanpersonalitytraits,character,willpower,etc.Manypeople,perhapsthemajority,canbemadetodoalmostanythingwhenputintopsychologicallycompellingsituations–regardlessoftheirmorals,ethics,values,attitudes,beliefs,orpersonalconvictions.II.Evaluationandexploration(1)Hypothesis:thechangeofenvironment(includingchangedroles)affectsone’sbehavior(studentsareputintoamockprisonandassignedoppositeroleswhicharealldifferentfromtheirnormalenvironmentandroleofbeingastudentorcitizen)Cause:prisonandassignednewroles(changedenvironment)Effect:rationalpeoplewithhumanitywereturnedtoabusersandvictimsIndependentvariable:theparticipantsashumanbeings(thesamehumanbeings)(Stimulus:changeofenvironment/roles)Dependentvariable:behaviorTheexperimentonthepowerandinfluenceofrolesassignedtoordinaryindividualsisbasicallyvalidandconvincing,andsimilarexperimentsalsoprovethatmostpeople’sbehaviorareinfluencedbythesocialenvironment,particularlythenewrolestheyareassigned.Unfortunately,theexperiment參考材料......cannotbeconfirmedduetotheethicalconcern(theharmcausedbytheexperimentontheparticipants).Andalso,sincetheparticipantsofasocialexperimentarehumans,theresultmightnotbeexactlythesame(unlikethenaturalscienceexperimentwhichcanberepeatedwithprecisionandsameresult).(2)Similarities:thetwoexperimentsareallabouttheeffectofassignedrolesandsocialexpectationsonthebehaviorofthehumanbeings.Differences:Zimbardo’sexperimentfocusesonthegradualchangeofbehavioronthosewhoareassignednewroles(prisoneffect)whileStanley’sexperimentfocusesonauthority’sinfluenceonindividualsinnormalcircumstances(authorityeffect).(3)Poweranditsexecutionarecloselyrelatedwiththeroleassignedtothepower-holder.Themoreimportantrolehe/sheisgiven,themorelikelyhe/sheabusesitiftherearenochecksandbalancesfromotherinstitutions.Itisveryimportanttofightagainstcorruption(incampaignsorthroughlegalmeans),butit’smoreimportanttosetupmechanismtobalancetherolegiventopower-holders.(4)參考材料......Zimbardo’sstatementorconclusionisbasedonhisonlyexperimentabouthumansandtheirenvironmentandcannotberepeatedduetoethicalreasons.Itisreasonabletoarguethatmostpeopleareinfluencedbythe(changeof)environmentandadapttoitquickly,whichmeanspersonal“freedom”siconditioned.However,thereareexceptions,andthisstatementcannotexplainthebehaviorofthoseheroeswhosticktotheirprinciplesunderanycircumstancesandwouldratherdiethansurrendertoenemyorpower.(5)Theseexceptionalexamplesaremostlyheroesinextremecircumstancessuchaswarorconditionoflifeanddeath(WenTianxiang,LiuHulan,JohnBrownetc.).Theyhavetochoosebetweenlifeanddeathveryquicklyandsometimestheyactfrominstinct.Thereareotherfactorsthatresultintheseexceptionalcases–theyallhaveverystrongcharacterswhichhavebeenfosteredinhardship;theyalsohaveaverystrongfaithandarereadytodieforthecausetheypursue.(6)BesidesthereasonZimbardomentions(psychologicalfactorofself-imageforthedonors),thereareatleasttwomorereasons.Oneisreligiousreason–mostpeopleintheWestareChristianswhobelieveintheteachingsofJesusChristandfeeladutytohelpthepoor(intheformofmaterial,money,ortime).TheotherisrelatedtotheaffluenceoftheWestwherethemajorityof參考材料......peoplebecomewell-offenoughtogiveawayafractionoftheirwealthormoneytomaintainsocialstability.(There’realsootherreasonssuchastaxdeductioninsomecountriestoencouragedonation.)(7)Simplyput,themeritof“groupthink”isthatitcanmobilizeauniformedcollectiveforcetorealizesomegoalthatindividualsalonecannothopetoaccomplish(throughteamworkandnationalsolidarity).Thedemeritof“groupthink”isthatthegroupleader’sviewmight-sbeideonedandflawed,andthewrongdecisionorpolicybasedonitcouldeasilyleadtomistakesorevendisaster.Otherdemerits:thissituationmayeasilyresultinthecircumstanceofstrongleader/dictatorvs.obedient/populistfollowers;andinmanycasesthe“truth”isnotnecessaryinthehandsofthemajority.(8)Clinicaltrialsareexperimentsdoneinclinicalresearch.Suchprospectivebiomedicalorbehavioralresearchstudiesonhumanparticipantsaredesignedtoanswerspecificquestionsaboutbiomedicalorbehavioralinterventions,includingnewtreatmentsandknowninterventionsthatwarrantfurtherstudyandcomparison.Clinicaltrialsgeneratedataonsafetyandefficacy.Theyareconductedonlyaftertheyhavereceivedhealthauthority/ethicscommitteeapprovalinthecountrywhereapprovalofthetherapyissought.Theseauthoritiesareresponsibleforvettingtherisk/benefitratioofthetrial-theirapprovaldoesnotmeanthatthetherapyis'safe'oreffective,onlythatthetrialmaybeconducted.Dependingon參考材料......producttypeanddevelopmentstage,investigatorsinitiallyenrollvolunteersand/orpatientsintosmallpilotstudies,andsubsequentlyconductprogressivelylargerscalecomparativestudies.Thekeypointhereis:Allparticipantsarevolunteerswhochooseclinicaltrialwhenothermeansfail.Worldwideitisestimatedthatthenumberofvertebrateanimalsrangesfromthetensofmillionstomorethan100millionusedinanimalexperimentannually.IntheEU,thesespeciesrepresent93%ofanimalsusedinresearch.IfthesamewastrueintheUSthenthetotalnumberofanimalsusedinresearchisestimatedtobebetween12and25million.Mostanimalsareeuthanizedafterbeingusedinanexperiment.Supportersoftheuseofanimalsinexperiments,suchastheBritishRoyalSociety,arguethatvirtuallyeverymedicalachievementinthe20thcenturyreliedontheuseofanimalsinsomeway.TheInstituteforLaboratoryAnimalResearchoftheU.S.NationalAcademyofScienceshasarguedthatanimalresearchcannotbereplacedbyevensophisticatedcomputermodels,whichareunabletodealwiththeextremelycomplexinteractionsbetweenmolecules,cells,tissues,organs,organisms,andtheenvironment.Animalrights,andsomeanimalwelfare,organizationsquestiontheneedforandlegitimacyofanimaltesting,arguingthatitiscruelandpoorlyregulated,thatmedicalprogressisactuallyheldbackbymisleadinganimalmodelsthatcannotreliablypredicteffectsinhumans,thatsomeofthetestsareoutdated,thatthecostsoutweighthebenefits,orthatanimalshavetheintrinsicrightnottobeusedorharmedin參考材料......experimentation.LanguageEnhancementI.Wordsandphrases1.(1)C&F(2)B&C(3)E&F(4)E&F(5)A&D(6)C&E(7)A&F(8)B&F(9)D&E(10)B&C2.（1）拼圖、勾畫（2）構建（名詞）（3）建造（動詞）（4）建筑物（5）檔案（6）（一列）縱隊（7）（用銼刀）銼（9）提出、提交（10）呼吁、要求（11）上訴（12）情緒感染、情感訴求（13）吸引力（14）從…懸吊下來（15）停職（16）暫停（17）懸浮（18）吸引（19）雇傭（20）交戰、接觸（21）忙于（22）面對、觸及3.(1)dieaway(2)need(3)callfor(4)overwhelmed(5)assessed(6)resultin(7)function(8)filed(9)prayed(10)predicting4.(1)servedas(2)endupwith(3)differentiatebetween(4)dissolvedinto(5)prevent…from(6)trade…for(7)attribute(to8)inflicted…(on9)derivedfrom(10)passoutII.Sentencesanddiscourse參考材料......1.(1)Thispowerfulappealforprisonreformwassenttomeinasecretletterfromaprisoner.Hecannotrevealhisnamebecauseofstillbeingrehabilitated.(2)Theguardswereinformedofthepotentialseriousnessanddangerofthesituationaswellastheirownweaknesses(duringtheexperiment).(3)Inlessthanaweek,theexperienceofimprisonmentdissolvedallgoodthingsthatthey’velearnedinalifetime,includinghumanvaluesandself-conceptswhiletheugliestandmostbasicsicksideofhumannaturecameintothesurface.(4)Individualbehaviorislargelyinfluencedanddominatedbysocialforcesandenvironmentalfactorsinsteadofbypersonalitytraits,character,willpower,orothercomponentsthatcannotbeprovedbyempiricalevidences.(5)Thuswecreatedafalsebeliefin(personal)freedombyemphasizingindividuals’internalcontrol(ofthemselvesandoftheenvironment)thatactuallydoesnotexists.(6)However,sincemostparticipantsinthe