1、精選優質文檔-傾情為你奉上精選優質文檔-傾情為你奉上專心-專注-專業專心-專注-專業精選優質文檔-傾情為你奉上專心-專注-專業Chapter one The basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.1 The definition of a word （1）一個最小的自由形態 （2）一個發音的集合體 （3）一個意義單位 （4）能獨自影響句子的形式 因此，我們能說“詞語是語言最小的自由形式，擁有固定的聲音和意義以及句法作用。”1.2 vocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary.

2、The general estimate of the English vocabulary is over one million words.1.3 Sound and meaning詞語是一個符號，代表著世界上其他的事物。每種世界文化已經贊成一定的讀音將代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，過程，行動，當然是在語言系統之外。這種象征性的聯系幾乎總是主觀的，并且“在代表事物和思想的聲音和實際的事物和思想之間沒有法定關系。”1.4 sound and form在古英語中，口語比今天更忠實地代表書面語，但隨著語言的發展，越來越多的不同出現在口語和書面語之間。有以下幾點原因：內因是因為英語字母表采用羅馬

3、字母，羅馬字母沒有獨立的字母代表每個讀音，因此一些字母代表兩個讀音或者組合在一起發音。 另一個原因是發音比拼寫的變化快，在一些時候還拉開了距離。在最近五百年里，盡管口語發音已經出現了顯著的變化，卻沒有相應的拼寫變化。Another reason for this is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.第三個原因是一些早期的書寫員發明了一些不同Those scribes had m

4、ade some change to the word spelling到 1500年年末，印刷已經變得非常普及。它有助于固定單詞的拼寫。同時，讀音繼續如往常變化，以此帶來了更多的不同。In the late 1500, printing became well established. It helped to freeze and standardize the spelling of words. Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more difference.當英語從其他語言中借鑒單詞時，它同樣

5、借用了拼寫。早期的借詞被同化，后來則不再遵守英語的發音規則和拼寫規則最后得出的結論是； 英語的書寫是發音形式不完善的代表 the written form of English is, there for , an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language. 1.5 classification of words根據使用頻率，單詞可以分為基礎詞和非基礎詞。可以根據概念分成實詞和虛詞，可以根據來源分為本地詞和借詞。 1. basic word stock and nonbasic vocabu

6、lary 基礎詞和非基礎詞基礎詞的特征：1. All national character所有的民族特征（基礎詞代表我們身邊世界中最常見的事物和非凡的現象。這是所有說那種語言的人都要知道的，這包括和下面方面相關的詞，包括自然現象，認得身體和親屬關系，動植物，動作、尺碼、范圍、狀態，數詞、代詞、介詞、連詞） 2. Stability 穩定性（基礎詞已經被使用若干世紀，例如人火山水太陽月亮。由于它們代表生活需要的普遍事物，它們很可能保持不變）3. Productivity 多產性（基礎詞大多是詞根。它們每個都能單獨使用同時可以和其他詞根或詞綴一起構成新4. polysemy 多義性5. collo

7、cability 搭配性全民性是區別通用詞和其他詞的最重要特征非基礎詞， 沒有上面描述特征的詞，不屬于語言的正常核心，它們包括下面：Terminology 專業術語（包括特定學科和學術領域的技術術語）Jargon 行話（用于特定的詞匯，通過特定藝術，科學，商業和專業領域的成員在彼此之 間交流）Slang 俚語Argot 黑話（通常是指罪犯的黑話。他的應用被限制在下層文化團體，外人很難理解他）Dialectal words 方言Archaisms 古語（是曾經一度普遍使用現在卻被限制使用的詞和形式。他們主要出現在古詩， 法律文件，宗教 作品和演講中）Neologisms 新詞語 2. conte

8、nt words and functional words 內容詞和功能詞 內容詞：Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. 內容詞顯示清楚的概念，因為被認為是概念詞。他們包括名詞，動詞,形容詞，副詞和數詞. 功能詞: Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also calle

9、d empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and article belong to this category. 功能詞沒有他們自己的概念。因此，他們也稱作“空詞”。由于他們的主要功能是去表達概念間的關系，詞語間和句子間

10、的關系，他們被認為是“結構詞”。介詞，連詞，輔助詞和冠詞屬于這一類3. native words and borrowed words 本地詞和外來詞本地詞:本地詞在五世紀由日爾曼人帶到英國，盎格魯，撒克遜，還有朱特人，因此被認為是盎格魯撒克遜詞匯。盎格魯撒克遜源頭詞數量很少，大約在 50000到60000之間，但是他們構成了基本詞儲的主流，并且處在語言的核心。因此，真正的基礎詞其實也是真正的本地詞。和基本詞儲的特征相分離，和外來詞相對比，本地詞還有兩個其他特征： Neutral in style 風格中性 于本地詞表示人類社會中最常見事物，他們被所有人使用，在所有地方使用，在所有場合使用，在

11、任何時候使用。因此，他們沒有獨特的特點Frequent in use 頻繁使用外來詞:外來詞分為四類：1. Denizens 同化詞 Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into English Language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling. 2. Aliens 非同化詞 Aliens are borrowed words whi

12、ch have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin. 3. Translation loans 譯借詞(翻譯借詞是從英語中的現有材料中取材構成，但是 模仿其他語言的構成方式，包括 words translated according to the meaning 和 Words translated according to the sound) 4. semantic loans 借義詞 English

13、 has borrowed a now meaning for an existing word in the language Chapter two the development of the English vocabulary2.1 the Indo-European language family 印歐語系 Balto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany,(后三個源自Sanskri

14、t)Eastern setArmenian Are the sole modern languages in the two respective familiesAlbanian Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Pictish Italic: Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian Hellenic: Greek Germanic: Scandinavian languages (Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish), German

15、, Dutch, Flemish, English Hittite Tocharianfind no descendants of their own Western set2.2 three phases of the historical development The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language Family.old English (450-11

16、50)The Germanic tribes, called Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes invaded the rich lowland.Their language, known as Anglo- Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic.Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirel

17、y Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.Old English was a highly inflected language. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowel changes or both, which digger greatly form the language that we use today.Middle English (1150-1500)T

18、he Norman Conquest produced two great results. First, it brought to an insular nation a new and larger continental culture. Second, Norman French became the polite speech.Modern English (1500 up to the present)Early Modern English (1500-1700) In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new u

19、psurge in learning ancient Greek and Roman classics, which is known as the Renaissances. Late Modern English (1700 up to the present) Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power. Thousands

20、 of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions, and scientific achievements.2.3 General Characteristics 1. Receptivity, adaptability and heterogeneity(容納性，適應性，多樣性) 2. Simplicity of inflection (簡化) As one scholar notes, Old English was characterized by “full endings”, Middle English

21、 by “leveled endings”, and Modern English by “lost endings”3. Relatively fixed word-order2.4 Foreign elements in the English vocabulary Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian, Other foreign elements: Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese, Celtic 2.5 Growth of contemporary English vocabulary The

22、re are three main sources of new words:The rapid development of modern science and technology Social, economic and political changesThe influence of other cultures and language2.6 Modes of vocabulary development Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, bo

23、rrowing(創造新詞，舊詞變義，借用外來詞) Chapter three Morphological Structure of English Words3.1Morphemes 詞素 Morphemes: minimal meaningful units3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs 詞素形式和詞素變體Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 語言中最小的不可再分的意義單位是詞素morpheme(又可稱為形位，語素)，詞素是

24、抽象的，它是通過詞素形式morph變現出來的。詞素還具有變體形式，稱為allomorph(詞素變體)All allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.We class morph together as allomorphs of a single morpheme.Many morphemes can have more than one allomorph33Classfying MorphemesFree versus bound 自由詞素和粘附詞素Derivational

25、versus inflectional 派生詞素和曲折詞素Lexical versus grammatical 詞匯語素和語法詞素Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Free morp

26、hemes are all roots.(這里的root是free root)Bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes.（這里的root是bound root）Derivational versus inflectional morphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes.Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationship between

27、words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.(包括名詞復數s,es,動詞三單s,es,名詞所有格s,形容詞比較級er,est,規則動詞過去式和過去分詞ed,動詞現在分詞和動名詞ing)Content versus grammatical morphemesContent morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used to derive new words, so also known as derivation

28、al morphemes. Grammatical morphemes encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally called the functional words.Identifying morphemesMorpheme and word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are conventionally

29、labeled root, stem, base and affix.AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes.Affixes can fall into prefix and suffix.Root, Stem and BaseA root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without

30、total loss of identity.A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in handcuff.A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflecti

31、onal affixes have been removed. In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It can be a root or stem.Chapter four Word Formation構詞法：affixation(加綴法) com

32、pounding(復合法) conversion（詞性的轉換） blending(拼綴法) Clipping （截短法） acronymy （首字母縮略法） back-formation（逆生法） sound reduplication（聲音重復）4.1 Affixation加綴法 1. prefixation 前綴Negative prefixes 表示否定的前綴 dis- in- non- un- Reversative or privative prefixes 逆反前綴de- dis- un-Pejorative prefixes 貶義前綴mal- mis- pseudo-Prefix

33、es of degree or size 表示范圍和程度的前綴arch- co- extra- hyper- macro- micro- mini- out- over- sub- super- ser- ultra- under-Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示方向和態度的前綴anti- contra- counter- pro-Locative prefixes 方位前綴extra - fore- inter- intra- super- tele- trans- Prefixes of time and orderex- fore- post

34、- pre- re-Number prefixesbi- di- multi- semi- tri- uni-Conversion prefixes 專類詞綴be- en- miscellaneous prefixes 混雜的詞綴auto- neo- pan- proto- vice- 2. suffixation 后綴法noun suffixes 名詞詞綴denominal nouns 詞綴加在名詞后，構成名詞conc人ete 構成具體名詞-eer -er -ess -ette -let sterabstract 構成抽象名詞 dom ery -ful -hood -ing -ism -sh

35、ipdeverbal nouns 詞綴加在動詞后，構成名詞-ant -ee -ent -er -age -al -ance -ation -ence -ing 3) de-adjective nouns 詞綴加載名詞后，構成名詞 -ity -ness 4)noun and adjective suffixes 名詞和形容詞后綴 A small number of suffixes, when added to bases related to human beings or nationality names, yield words that can be used both as noun

36、s and adjectives. -ese -an -ist -iteadjective suffixes形容詞后綴denominal suffixes在名詞后加綴，成為形容詞-ful -ish -less -like -ly -y -al -ial -ical -esque -ic -ous -eous -ious -uous 2) deverbal suffixes 在動詞后加綴，成為形容詞 -able -ible -ative -ive -sive 3) adverb suffixes在副詞后加綴，成為形容詞 -ward -wise 4) verb suffixes 在動詞后加綴，成為

37、形容詞 -ate -en - ify -ize -ise4.2 compounding復合法Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases.Characteristics of compounds復合詞的特點phonological features 語音方面的特點In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent.一般情況下，復合詞重音都在前面。注意區分： a hot house 溫室 a hot house 熱房

38、子semantic features語義上的特點Every compound should express single idea just as one word.Grammatical features 語法特征Compounds tend to fill a single grammatical slot in a sentence.Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional s at the end.Orthographical features 正確拼寫特征In most cases, compounds

39、 are written wither solid or hyphenated. Three forms:flowerpot flower-pot flower pot formation Formation of compoundsNoun compoundsAdjective compoundsVerb compounds4.3 conversion 詞性的轉換 Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class, by turning words of one

40、 part of speech to those of another part speech in traditional terms. New words are new only in grammatical sense. Since words that are make do not change in morphological structure but in function, process in also known as functional shift.1. conversion to nounsDeverbal 動詞轉換為名詞 eg.laufDe-adjectivel

41、y 形容詞轉換為名詞eg.whiteMiscallaneous conversion 其他詞性的轉換eg. a given2. conversion to verbsDenominal 名詞轉換為動詞 eg. pocket the money put the money in the pocketDe-adjectival 形容詞轉換為動詞 eg. wet his shoesMiscellaneous conversion 其他詞性的轉換 eg.we downed a few beers.conversion to adjectives大部分情況下都是名詞轉換為形容詞。名詞在轉換為名詞時會發生

42、一些變化：Voiceless to voiced consonant 清輔音轉換為濁輔音eg.advice/-s/ advice/-z/Initial to end stress 重音由詞首變到詞尾eg. conduct conduct4.4 blending拼綴法 Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. 有四種形式：head + taileg. autocide from (automobile+suicide)h

43、ead+headeg. somsat from(communication+satellite)head+wordeg. medicare from(medical +care)word+taileg. lunarnaut from(lunar+astronant) 4.5 Clipping 截短法 It is the formation of new words by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. 有四種形式：Front clippingEg. quake (earthquake)Back cl

44、ippingEg. deli（delicatessen）Front and back clippingEg. flu(influenza)Phrase clippingEg. pop(popular music)Acronymy 首字母縮略法initialisms (按照字母發音來讀，如VOA)acronyms(拼讀，如AIDS)back-formation 逆生法Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Back-formation is therefore the method of cr

45、eating words by removing the supposed suffixes, so called because many of the removed endings are not suffixes bur inseparable parts of the words.Eg. begger-beg emotion-emote babysitter-babysit Lazy -lazesound reduplication 聲音重復As the term indicates, sound reduplication is the formation of compound

46、words by repeating the same element with little or no change. Words made in this way are known as reduplicatives.Eg. bow-wow(of dog) ping-pong dilly-dally tip-topcommonization of proper names專有名詞轉化的詞names of peoplenames of placesnames of bookstradenames 商品名 Chapter five Word Meaning and Componential

47、 AnalysisWording MeaningIt is agreed that a word is the combination of word-form and its meaning. “Form” refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. “Meaning” is what the form stands for.Reference所指關系Reference is the relationship between language and the world. Only a connection has been establis

48、hed between the linguistic sign and a referent, does the sign become meaningful. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite. 所指關系是語言和世界之間的聯系。只有當語言

49、符號和一樣參照物之間的聯系已被建立，符號才變得有意義。一個指代語言以外事物的單詞的所指關系是隨意的和約定俗成的。盡管參考是一種抽象，然而在背景的幫助下，它能指示特定的事物。The same thing can have different referring expressions without causing any confusion. The cat can be referred to as, say, the animal, my dear, Jassy, this, she and so onConcept 概念Concept, which is beyond language,

50、 is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, and language and so on. 概念，是在語言之外，是人類認識的結果，反映人心中的客觀世界。它是普遍的針對所有相同的人不考慮文化，種族，語言等等。Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in differen

51、t words. For example, much and many both have the same concept, but collocate with different words, much time, much money, but many people, many book.Sense 語感 Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. For example, pro

52、bable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which refer to anything in the world, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different languages, so one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as having the same sense: Pavement in British English and sidewal

53、k in American English. 語感表達語言內部的關系。有意義的詞都有語感，但并不都有所指關系。例如，”可能“”幾乎“”和“”如果“”但是“”是的，沒有一個指代世界中的事物，但是都有語感。就像一個人可以用不同的語言說同一個概念，因此人可以說表達在同一語言的不同方言，由于有相同的語意：人行道在英式英語中和人行道在美式英語中有相同的語意。Motivation 理據As we know, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, most words can be

54、said to be mon-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning does not account for the meaning. Nevertheless, English does have words the meanings of which are transparent and reasonably explicable.如我們所知，詞的形式和意義之間的關系是約定俗成和隨意的，大多數詞可以說是沒有動機的。，符號和意義的關系沒有法定解釋。然而，英語中許多詞它的意義在一定程度上能夠解釋。 Onomatopoeic mot

55、ivation 擬聲理據In the modern English one may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. 在現代英語中人可能發現一些詞聲音暗示了它們的意義。因為這些詞是模仿自然界的聲音而成。Eg, bow-wow, bang, ping-pang, miaow, ha ha, tick-tuck.Morphological Motivation 形態理據Comp

56、ounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Often, when one knows the meanings of the morphemes or bases, one can deduce the meanings of the words. 復合詞和派生詞是多詞素詞，許多詞的意義是組合詞素的總和。經常的，如果人知道所有詞素的意思，也就是詞綴或詞干的意思，就能想出詞的意思.eg.

57、 airmail means” to mail by air”, reading-lamp is”the lamp for reading”Semantic Motivation 語義理據語義動機指詞的概念意義所暗示的心理聯系。他說明單詞字面意義和和比喻意義之間的關系。當我們說到“河口”，我們聯系河的開口部分與人類或動物的口。當我們使用“山腳”，我們就是在拿山較低的部分和人的腳作比較，他喜歡湖，壺提示有東西包含在里面，“鋼筆”和“”在“筆比劍更強大”中，暗示“寫作”和“戰爭”。Etymological Motivation 詞源理據許多詞匯的意義通常直接和它們的源頭相聯系。換句話說，詞語的歷史

58、解釋了詞語的意思。例如，現在人們使用 pen指代所有書寫工具，盡管他的源頭表示“鵝毛筆”，因為在現代鋼筆產生之前，鵝毛通常被用作書寫工具。盡管現代人不再用鵝毛來書寫，為了方便，名稱仍然保留。所有從專有名詞大眾化來的詞都能根據他的起源來解釋說明。一個例子已經足夠說明。單詞 laconic意思是簡潔，短。派生自 lacon，一族以“說話簡潔”著稱的人，習慣決不比需要使用更多的詞。因此laconic answer 是說“簡短的回答”。Types of MeaningGrammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 語法意義和詞匯意義Grammatical meaning

59、 refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of vervs and their inflectional paradigm. 如同早期提過的，語法意義指詞義中描述語法概念或者關系的部分，象是詞匯說話中的部分（名詞，動詞，形容詞，副詞），名詞的單復數意義，動詞的時態意義和

60、它們的屈折格形式。Lexical meaning itself embraces two components: conceptual meaning and associative.詞匯意義本身包括兩個內容：概念意義和聯系意義。 Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning概念意義與聯想意義Conceptual meaning (also known as cognitive, denotative, or designative meaning) is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the cor