1、附錄1:翻譯（漢）冷鍛技術的發展現狀與趨勢 摘要： 冷鍛技術是一種精密塑性成形工藝，具有切削加工不可比擬的優點，廣泛應用于各種機械產品關鍵零部件的制造。本文從冷鍛零件的形狀、材料、工藝革新、生產率、數值模擬技術和數字化/智能化設計技術應用、以及優化技術幾個方面綜合論述了冷鍛技術的發展現狀與趨勢。關鍵詞： 冷鍛，工藝/模具設計，數值模擬，基于知識的工藝設計，設計優化 。冷鍛工藝是一種精密塑性成形技術，具有切削加工無可比擬的優點，如制品的機械性能好，生產率高和材料利用率高，特別適合于大批量生產，而且可以作為最終產品的制造方法（net-shape forming），在交通運輸工具、航空航天和機床工業

2、等行業具有廣泛的應用。當前汽車工業、摩托車工業和機床工業的飛速發展，為冷鍛這一傳統的技術的發展提供了原動力，例如，我國1999年摩托車的全國總產量就有1126萬多輛，而根據2000年的初步估計，我國汽車的總需求量到2005年將達到330萬輛，其中轎車130-140萬輛，僅汽車行業的鍛件需求在50-60萬噸以上。冷鍛技術在我國的起步雖然不算太晚，但發展速度與發達國家有很大的差距。到目前為止，我國生產的轎車上的冷鍛件重量不足20Kg，相當于發達國家的一半，開發潛力很大。加強冷鍛技術開發與推廣應用是我國目前的一項緊迫任務。1、冷鍛件的形狀越來越復雜 冷鍛零件的形狀越來越趨于復雜，由最初的階梯軸、螺釘

3、/螺母和導管等，發展到形狀復雜的零件，如圖1所示為不同尺寸的摩托車花鍵軸與花鍵套，花鍵軸的典型工藝為：正擠壓桿部-鐓粗中間頭部分-擠壓花鍵；花鍵套的主要工藝為：反擠壓杯形件-沖底制成環型件-正擠壓軸套。如圖2所示為汽車輸出軸與輸入軸，以及其他冷鍛制品。如圖3所示為我國采用擺動碾壓技術制成的各種汽車/摩托車用錐齒輪、螺旋錐齒輪和其他圓盤類零件，如圖4所示為日本某公司生產的冷鍛零件，圖4所示的渦旋增壓器，我國已經列入國家“十五”攻關項目。目前圓柱齒輪的冷擠壓技術也成功用于生產。除黑色金屬外，目前銅合金、鎂合金和鋁合金材料的冷擠壓應用也越來越廣泛。2、持續不斷的工藝革新 冷精鍛是一種(近)凈形成形工

4、藝。采用該方法成形的零件強度和精度高,表面質量好。當前國外一臺普通轎車采用的冷鍛件總量4045Kg,其中齒形類零件總量達10Kg以上。冷鍛成形的齒輪單件重量可達1Kg以上、齒形精度可達7級。持續不斷的工藝創新推動了冷擠壓技術的發展，80年代以來，國內外精密鍛造專家開始將分流鍛造理論應用于正齒輪和螺旋齒輪的冷鍛成形。分流鍛造的主要原理是在毛坯或模具的成形部分建立一個材料的分流腔或分流通道。鍛造過程中，材料在充滿型腔的同時，部分材料流向分流腔或分流通道。分流鍛造技術的應用,使較高精度齒輪的少、無切削加工迅速達到了產業化規模。提出，對于長徑比為5的擠壓件，如活塞銷，采用軸向余料塊的方法通過軸向分流可

5、以實現冷擠壓一次成形，而且凸模的穩定性很好；對于扁平類的直齒輪成形，采用徑向余料塊也可以實現產品的冷擠壓成形。閉塞鍛造是在封閉凹模內通過一個或兩個沖頭單向或對向擠壓金屬一次成形,獲得無飛邊的近凈形精鍛件。一些轎車精密零件如行星和半軸齒輪、星形套、十字軸等如果采用切削加工方法,不僅材料利用率很低(平均不到40%),而且耗費工時多,生產成本極高。國外采用閉塞鍛造技術生產這些凈形鍛件,省去絕大部分切削加工,成本大幅度降低。冷鍛技術的發展主要是開發高附加值的產品,降低生產成本,同時, 它還在不斷地向切削、粉末冶金、鑄造、熱鍛、板料成形工藝等領域滲透或取而代之, 也可以和這些工藝相結合構成復合工藝。提出

6、的熱鍛-冷鍛復合塑性成形技術。熱鍛-冷鍛復合塑性成形技術是將熱鍛和冷鍛結合起來的一種新的精密金屬成形工藝，它充分利用了熱鍛和冷鍛各自的優點：熱態下金屬塑性好，流動應力低，因此主要的變形過程用熱鍛來完成；冷鍛件的精度高，因此零件的重要尺寸用冷鍛工藝來最終成形零件。熱鍛-冷鍛復合塑性成形技術出現于20世紀80年代，90年代以來取得了越來越廣泛的應用，用該技術制造的零件，已取得了精度提高、成本降低的良好效果。 圖1 圖2 圖 3 圖 43、數值模擬技術用于檢驗工藝和模具設計的合理性用冷鍛工藝成形零件時，由于金屬在冷態下發生塑性變形，其變形抗力很大，因此，零件的變形比較困難，變形過程中容易出現金屬充不

7、滿、鍛件出現裂紋等缺陷。同時，過大的變形抗力會嚴重降低模具的使用壽命。長期以來,我國金屬塑性成形的工藝設計和模具設計一直采用傳統的憑經驗、實驗方法。這種設計方法難以滿足凈形制造工藝的要求。隨著計算機技術的飛速發展和70年代塑性有限元理論的發展，許多塑性成形過程中很難求解的問題可以用有限元方法求解。在冷鍛成形工藝領域，通過建模和合適的邊界條件的確定, 有限元數值模擬技術可以很直觀地得到金屬流動過程的應力、應變、模具受力、模具失效情況及鍛件可能出現的缺陷情況。這些重要信息的獲得對合理的模具結構,模具的選材、熱處理及成形工藝方案的最終確定有著重要的指導意義。目前的有效的數值模擬軟件是以剛塑性有限元法

8、為基礎建立起來的,這些軟件有:DEFORM,QFORM，FORGE，MSC/SUPERFORM等。運用有限元數值模擬技術可用于檢驗工藝和模具設計的合理性。如提出了一種由空心坯成形直齒圓柱齒輪的新工藝: 預鍛分流區-分流終鍛, 用三維有限元數值模擬軟件DEFORM-3D 進行了數值模擬研究, 得到了鍛造載荷-行程曲線以及整個成形過程的應力、應變、速度分布等, 并與傳統的閉式鐓擠工藝模擬的結果進行了比較。分析表明, 傳統的閉式鐓擠成形直齒圓柱齒輪, 成形載荷大, 不利于齒形的充填。采用預鍛分流區-分流終鍛新工藝, 可以大幅度降低成形載荷,并明顯改善材料的充填性, 可以獲得齒形角部飽滿的齒輪。 用三

9、維大變形彈塑性有限元法對齒輪冷精鍛成形過程進行了數值模擬,對以閉式模鍛為預鍛和以閉式模鍛、孔分流及約束分流為終鍛的兩步成形模式的變形流動情況進行了數值模擬分析。數值分析結果及工藝實驗表明在終鍛中采取分流,尤其是約束孔分流措施對于降低工作載荷和提高角隅充填能力等方面十分有效。4、數字化智能設計系統的應用4.1 CAD/CAM技術在冷鍛成形工藝/模具設計中的應用為了適應現代生產對鍛模開發的短周期、高質量、低成本要求，將先進的設計理論與方法以及計算機技術，尤其是CAD技術的引入傳統的鍛模設計過程是鍛模設計領域的必然趨勢。模具CAD技術以其高自動化、高精度和高效益等優勢正持續推動著傳統的模具設計與制造

10、方法的變革。自20世紀70年代以來，國外許多單位開始對鍛模CAD/CAM進行了廣泛的研究，美國Ohio州的貝特爾哥倫布實驗室的T.Altan等人首先開發了軸對稱鍛模CAD系統。前蘇聯的捷捷林等專家系統研究了模鍛設計自動化和最優化原理，從方法學、算法模型等方面提出了全套的理論，并開發了回轉體類鍛件的自動化設計系統。國內在這方面的起步較晚，上海交通大學、清華大學、華中理工大學、哈爾濱工業大學和南昌大學等單位基于一定的平臺，開發了適用于不同種類鍛件的設計系統，但多數僅僅限于二維系統。到目前為止，雖然眾多的研究人員先后開發了適用于不同零件的鍛模設計系統，實現了工藝和模具設計若干環節的自動化和智能化，但

11、是尚未有成熟的鍛模CAD/CAM系統推向市場，許多工程設計人員只能采用通用的機械CAD/CAM軟件進行結構的詳細設計。4.2 基于知識的設計技術及其在冷鍛成形工藝/模具設計中的應用冷鍛成形工藝和模具設計是知識和經驗密集型的過程，模具設計人員在長期工作中積累的經驗與知識(Know-how)對模具設計有著十分重要的影響。傳統的CAD技術脫離了設計領域知識,缺乏對設計過程知識的支持,難以勝任模具開發"高質量、短周期、低成本"的要求。因此,需要將傳統的鍛模CAD技術提升到基于知識的設計層次。而實現這一飛躍的途徑是將人工智能（Artificial Intelligence, AI）技

12、術、基于知識的工程（Knowledge-based Engineering, KBE）技術引入冷鍛成形工藝/模具設計領域，與傳統的CAX技術相結合，開發基于知識的設計支持系統?；谥R的工程（Knowledge Based Engineering, KBE）主要指應用知識來解決各種工程問題，是人工智能技術在工程中的應用。由于冷鍛成形工藝/模具設計是一個包含了對知識的繼承、集成、創新和管理的復雜過程，引入基于知識的設計方法以后，跨領域專家的經驗與知識共享能夠使得設計更加富有創造性和預見性，而且領域專家知識在整個產品的設計生命周期內的一致性保證了產品開發的成功率，大大節省了開發時間，提高了設計質量

13、。從而使整個設計模式從經驗設計向科學設計轉變。美國哥倫布貝特爾實驗室開發出基于知識的預鍛幾何尺寸的設計系統，因設計預鍛件的形狀為空間幾何體，須對其幾何形狀進行操作，故不能單純地用一般語言來描述推理過程。對于零件的幾何信息，采用框架方法表示，在框架中用不同的槽，定義出組成零件的基本成分和它們之間的拓撲關系。設計規則是用產生式規則表示，用OPS工具進行推理。J. C. Choi和C. Kim開發了基于知識的冷鍛件和熱鍛件集成工序設計系統，并分別建立了冷、熱鍛件工藝設計規則。 基于知識設計方法在冷鍛成形工藝及模具的設計中的應用，將徹底改變塑性成形傳統的依靠設計人員個人經驗，設計過程中反復修改、設計效

14、率不高的狀態。它使用人工智能、模式識別、機器學習等技術在設計過程中從系統知識庫中提取合適的知識指導冷鍛成形工藝及模具設計。目前，該項技術正在進一步發展之中，近年來，基于知識設計方法已成為鍛造成形工藝/模具設計智能化技術研究的一個熱點課題。 5、優化技術的引入隨著競爭的日益加劇，低成本、高質量和高效率是制造業所追求的目標。在鍛造行業，為提高設計效率、降低制造成本和提高產品質量，必須對鍛造工藝過程中影響鍛件質量的各項工藝參數進行優化。由于鍛造變形是一個十分復雜的問題，對于其工藝參數的優化采用傳統的設計方法很難達到預期的效果，隨著計算機技術和塑性有限元理論和技術的不斷發展和日益完善，以有限元法為代表

15、的數值模擬方法已廣泛應用于各種金屬成形問題的求解分析。因此，基于有限元分析的優化設計方法在冷鍛成形工藝/模具設計中的應用不僅是可能的，也是一種必然趨勢。從實際應用的角度來看，基于有限元分析的優化方法中最具代表性的方法有基于靈敏度分析的優化方法和基于目標函數值的擬合優化方法兩種?；陟`敏度分析的優化設計方法屬于梯度型優化設計方法。該方法在具體實施時，首先確定目標函數和設計變量，然后找出它們之間的關系，推導目標函數對設計變量的靈敏度導數公式，根據設計變量的現有值求解出這些靈敏度信息，再利用優化算法確定設計變量的最優搜索方向，得到更優的設計變量，再求解靈敏度信息，如此反復，直到優化迭代收斂。 基于目

16、標函數值的擬合優化方法來源于外推法。這種方法用簡單的插值函數來近似逼近目標函數和設計變量之間的函數關系，通過求解這個近似函數的極值點來逼近真實函數的極值點。該方法用在鍛造工藝參數優化時，目標函數值是通過有限元程序來實現的。目前，一些通用的有限元分析軟件如(DEFORM、Marc)已廣泛應用于鍛造成形過程的數值模擬，可十分方便地計算出應力、應變等信息，因此，基于目標函數值的擬合優化方法可使有限元程序與優化算法分離，適合不同的鍛造成形工藝，對于鍛造成形過程的參數優化比較方便。雖然基于有限元分析的鍛造工藝優化技術的研究與應用已取得了不少成果，但目前仍處于起步階段。從目標函數的構建、優化設計變量的選取

17、到優化方法的具體應用可以看出,該領域的研究還存在一些問題。（1）基于靈敏度分析的優化方法的研究和應用已取得了不少的成果，由于該方法屬于梯度型優化方法，因此其收斂速度比較快。但它在實際的應用中還存在一些缺點：在優化設計過程中需要求解目標函數相對于優化設計變量的靈敏度信息(即導數)，對于復雜的金屬塑性成形過程的靈敏度信息的推導困難。該方法要求將求解靈敏度信息的程序代碼嵌入到數值分析程序代碼中，需要編寫有限元分析代碼和優化算法代碼，編程工作量大。同時該方法優化程序通用性差。（2）基于目標函數值的擬合優化方法的優點是優化算法與有限元程序分離，可充分利用功能強大的商用有限元分析軟件的優勢，該方法的通用性

18、較強。它的主要缺點是收斂速度比較慢，同時由于在擬合問題中，但設計變量取得較多時，會出現許多復雜的問題如適定性問題，使得擬合過程失敗。（3）鍛造成形是一個復雜的過程，其理想鍛件不僅應具有符合設計要求的精確外形，而且應具有均勻的變形、合理分布的變形力和理想的質量（無宏觀和微觀缺陷）等。上述各個方面，都是鍛造生產所追求的目標，因此對鍛造過程優化設計進行多目標優化十分必要。目前這方面的研究比較少。6、結論 冷鍛技術成形精度比溫鍛和熱鍛都要高,在精密成形領域有著其獨特的優勢。本文從冷鍛零件的形狀、材料、工藝革新、生產率、數值模擬技術和數字化/智能化設計技術應用、以及優化技術幾個方面綜合論述了冷鍛技術的發

19、展現狀、分析了冷鍛技術目前存在的問題并指出了今后發展的方向。冷精鍛是一種(近)凈形成形工藝，有著十分廣闊的應用前景。附錄2：翻譯（英）State of The Art and Advance of Cold Forging Technology Abstract: Cold forging is a kind of precise forming technology, and has the unique advantages compared to the traditional machining technology. In this paper, the start of art a

20、nd advance of the cold forging technology is systematically illustrated in the aspects of part shape, part material, process innovation, and production efficiency, application of numerical simulation and knowledge-based design, and design optimization technology. Keywords: cold forging, process/die

21、design, numerical simulation, knowledge-based design, design optimization The cold forging craft is one precise plastic forming technology, has the machining incomparable merit, like product machine capability good, the productivity high and the material use factor is high, suits specially in the ma

22、ss production, moreover may take the final product the manufacture method (net-shape forming), in profession and so on transportation tool, aerospace and machine tool industry has the widespread application. The current automobile industry, the motorcycle industry and the machine tool industry rapid

23、 development, has provided the driving force for the cold forging this tradition technology development, for example, our country in 1999 the motorcycle national ultimate output has more than 11.26 million 1 , but will act according to 2000 the preliminary estimate, the our country automobile achiev

24、es 3.3 million total demand to 2005, passenger vehicle 130-140 ten thousand, only automobile profession forging demand above 50-60 ten thousand tons 2 . Cold forging technology in our country's start although does not calculate too late. But the development speed and the developed country have t

25、he very big disparity. So far, Our country produces on passenger vehicle cold forging weight insufficient 20Kg,Is equal in the developed country one half, The development potential is very big, Strengthens the cold forging technology development and the promoted application is a our country at prese

26、nt urgent duty.1、 Cold forging shape is more and more complexThe cold forging components shape more and more tends to complex, by initial steps and ladders axis, bolt/The nut and the drive pipe and so on, develop to the shape complex components, like chart 1 shows for the different size motorcycle s

27、pline shaft and the splined tube, the spline shaft typical craft is: Is pushing among the strut bracing department - upsetting the part - extrusion spline; The splined tube main craft is: The counter- extrusion cup shaped - flushes the bottom to make annular - to extrude the axle sleeve. Like chart

28、2 shows for the automobile output shaft and the input axis, and all that cold forging products. Like chart 3 shows for our country uses swings each kind of automobile which the roller compaction technology makes/The motorcycle with the bevel gear, the spiral bevel gear and other disc class component

29、s 1 , like chart 4 showed the cold forging components which produced for Japanese some company, the vortex pressure intensifier which chart 4 showed, our country already includes the country "15" the attack project 3 . At present the cylindrical gears cold extrusion technology also succeed

30、s uses in producing. Besides the ferrous metal, at present the copper alloy, the magnesium alloy and the aluminum alloy material cold extrusion application more and more is also widespread.2 、Continues the unceasing craft innovationThe cold finish forge is one kind (is near) only forms the shape cra

31、ft. A use this method forming the components intensity and the precision is high. The quality of surface is good. The current overseas ordinary passenger vehicle uses cold forging total quantity 40 45Kg.Tooth profile class components total quantity reaches above 10Kg. The cold forging forming gear s

32、ingle unit weight may reach above 1Kg; the tooth profile precision may reach 7 levels.Continued the unceasing craft innovation to impel the cold extrusion technology development, since 80's, Domestic and foreign precisely will forge the expert to start to diverge the forging theory to apply in t

33、he spur gear and the helical gear cold forging forming. The divergence forging main principle is partially establishes a material in the semi finished materials either the mold forming the divergence cavity or diverges the channel. In forging process, Material while filling cavity, the partial mater

34、ials flow to the divergence cavity or diverge the channel. Divergence forging technology application, Caused to compare the high accuracy gear to be few, not to have the machining rapidly to achieve the industrial production scale. Like the literature 1 proposed that, regarding the major axis compar

35、ed to is 5 extrusions, like the piston pin, uses axial Yu Liaokuai the method to be possible to realize through the axial divergence coldly extrudes a time of forming, moreover the raised mold stability is very good; Regarding the flat kind of spur gear forming, uses radial direction Yu Liao kuai al

36、so to be possible to realize the product cold extrusion forming.Unenlightened forging is in seals up in the concave mold is unidirectional through either two drift or to approaches an extrusion metal forming, Obtains does not have the edge nearly only the shape fine forging. Some passenger vehicle p

37、recise components like planets and rear axle shaft gear, star type wrap, cross axle and so on if uses the machining method, Not only the material use factor is very low (equally not to 40%),Moreover consumes the man-hour, The production cost is extremely high. Overseas uses the unenlightened forging

38、 technology to produce these only shape forging, Omits the major part machining, the cost large scale reduces.The cold forging technology development mainly is develops the high added value the product, Reduces the production cost, At the same time, It also in unceasingly to the cutting, the powder

39、metallurgy, the casting, the hot forging, domain seepage and so on sheet forming craft or displaces, Also may unify the constitution compound craft with these crafts. Like the literature 4 proposed hot forging - cold forging compound plasticity forming technology. The hot forging - cold forging comp

40、ound plasticity forming technology is one kind of new precise metal forming craft which unifies the hot forging and the cold forging, it has fully used the hot forging and the cold forging respective merit: Under the thermal state the metal plasticity good, the mobile stress is low, therefore the ma

41、in distortion process completes with the hot forging; The cold forging precision is high, therefore the components important size finally forms the components with the cold forging craft. The hot forging - cold forging compound plasticity forming technology appears in the 1980s, since the 90's h

42、ave obtained the more and more widespread application, with this technical manufacture components, have obtained the precision to enhance, the cost reduction good effect. Chart 1 Chart 2 Chart 3 Chart 43 、values simulations technology uses in the rationality which examines the craft and the mold des

43、igns.When with cold forging craft forming components, because the metal in cold condition under has the plastic deformation, its resistance to deformation very big, therefore, components distortion quite difficult, in the distortion process is easy to appear the metal to be sufficient does not fill,

44、 the forging has flaw and so on crack. At the same time, the oversized resistance to deformation can seriously reduce the mold the service life. Since long ago, our country metal plasticity forming technological design and the mold design always uses the tradition to depend on the experience, the ex

45、perimental technique. This design method satisfies only the shape manufacture craft request with difficulty.Along with the computer technology rapid development and the 70's plastic finite element theory development, in many plasticity forming process is very difficult the question which solves

46、to be possible to use the finite element method to solve. In cold forging forming craft domain, through modeling and appropriate boundary condition determination, The finite element value simulation technology may very direct-viewing obtain the flaw situation which the metal mobile process the stres

47、s, the strain, the mold stress, the mold expiration situation and the forging possibly appears. This important information obtaining to reasonable mold structure. The mold selection, the heat treatment and the formed craft plan finally determination has the important guiding sense.The present effect

48、ive value simulation software was establishes take just the plastic finite element method as the foundation. This software include: DEFORM, QFORM, FORGE, and MSC/SUPERFORM and so on. Use in the rationality utility the finite element value simulation technology which examines the craft and the mold d

49、esigns. Like the literature 5 proposed one kind forms the straight tooth cylindrical gears by the hollow billet the new craft: Hammers the divergence area - divergence end to hammer in advance, Has conducted the value simulator study with three dimensional finite element value simulation software DE

50、FORM-3DTM, Obtained the forging load - traveling schedule curve as well as the entire forming process stress, the strain, the velocity distribution and so on, and pushed the craft simulation result with the traditional closed type to carry on the comparison. The analysis indicated, the traditional c

51、losed type pushes the formed straight tooth cylindrical gears, the formed load is big, does not favor the tooth profile filling. Uses of hammers the divergence area - divergence end to hammer the new craft in advance, May large scale reduce the formed load. And the distinct improvement material fill

52、s the nature, May obtain the tooth profile angle department full gear. The literature 6 has carried on the value simulation with the three dimensional big distortion ball plastic finite element method counter gear cold finish forge forming process. To as hammered in advance take the closed type drop

53、 forging with by the closed type drop forging, the hole of divergence and the restraint divergence two steps of formed patterns distortion mobile situation which hammered for the end has carried on the value simulation analysis. The numerical analysis result and the craft experiment indicated hammer

54、s in the end and adapt to the divergence. Restrains the hole of divergence measure regarding to reduce the work load and to enhance the angle corner in particular to fill aspect and so on ability is extremely effective.4 、Digitized intelligences design system application4.1 、CAD/CAM technology in co

55、ld forging forming craft/In mold design applicationIn order to adapt the modern production the short cycle which develops to the forging die, high grade, the low cost request, the advanced design theory and the method as well as computer technology, in particular the CAD technology introduction trad

56、ition forging die design process will be the forging die design domain inevitable trend. The mold CAD technology by its high superiority and so on automation, high accuracy and high benefit is continuing to impel the traditional mold design and the manufacture method transformation. Since the 20th c

57、entury 70's, the overseas many units have started to forging die CAD/CAM has conducted extensive research, American Ohio state Battle - Columbus laboratory Thurman and so on Altan has first developed the axial symmetry forging die CAD system. Former Soviet Union's expert system and so on Cze

58、choslovakia forest has studied the drop forging design automation and the optimized principle, from aspect and so on methodology, algorithm model proposed the complete set theory, and has developed the solid of revolution class forging automated design system.Domestic is late in this aspect start, Shanghai unit and so on Jiao tong University, Qinghai University, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Harbin industrial university and Nanchang University based on the certain platform, developed has been suitable for the different type forging design system, but m