1、Media studies and social theoriesLee Chin-Chuan治學 師者不必賢于弟子，弟子不必不如師。聞道有先后，術業有專攻。如是而已矣。（韓愈） 知之為知之，不知為不知，是知也。（論語） 鼴鼠飲河，不過滿腹。（莊子） 舊學商量加邃密，新知培養轉深沉。（朱熹）Media studies: a discipline or a field of inquiry? Berger & Chaffee: a branch of human communication Paisley: horizontal, interdisciplinary Tunstall:

2、media sociology Golding & Murdock: theories of society Carey: a site of meaning & struggleI. Social sciences OUTLINE:Two paradigms: “two cultures”?Four questionsEight styles of research 人文藝術：主觀 主觀：貝多芬孔子，杜甫？莫扎特莊子，李白？（傅聰，走出家書）是增加意境？還是穿鑿附會？“月光奏鳴曲”，“給愛麗斯”無主題音樂 (violin concerto in D major, K210)

3、如何解釋畢加索、梵高、塞尚的畫“意”？ 圣經對你有什么“啟示”？科學：客觀 X +Y = Z 因（自變項）？果（他變項）？ 單因，單果？ 多因，單果？指標回歸分析 多因，多果？（指標 vs.變項） 二戰：遠因，中因，近因？Postivist vs. interpretive Whitehead: “Seek simplicity, and distrust it.” Carey: “Seek complexity, and order it.” C. Geertz, “I grow uncomfortable when I get too far away from the immediaci

4、es of social life.”Sociological paradigms (1)1. Ontological 本體論essence of phenomenon): Nominalism 名論(only symbols exist)Realism 實在論(there is an empirical reality.)2. Epistemological 知識論 (essence of knowledge): Anti-positivism (symbolsSubjectively & selectively interpreted) Positivism 實證論 (search

5、 for causal relationships between constituent elements)Sociological paradigms (2)3. Human nature (human interface with environment): Voluntarism 能動論(subjective consciousness, autonomous agent)Determinism 決定論: determined by environment & institution4. Methodology方法論: Ideographic 表意的，符號的 (Must get

6、 close to subjects):interpretiveNomothetic 規律的(systematic protocol): causal and positivistic; observable evidence Social change Radical change: change of the system 改革制度 questions the basic premises of capitalism and its society; favoring large-scale and fundamental change 革命派 Liberal reform (sociol

7、ogy of regulation):制度內變革 gradual, mild, and piecemeal change within the system; supports the basic premises of the system, and finds parts in need of changei.e., “responsible capitalism” 改良派Sociology of social changeRadical humanist:cal Radical change, subjectiveFrankfurt Schla) British cultural stu

8、d. (Hall, Williams)Radical structuralist: radical change, objective lawsPolitical economy (Golding, Murdock, Schiller)Interpretive (liberal-pluralist): reformist, subjective (Chicago, Gans, Schudson, Berger, Geertz)Functionalist (liberal-pluralist): reform, objective (Columbia, most of US media effe

9、cts) Max Weber Epistemological/methodological accommodationCausality at the level of adequacy (positivism)Meaning at the level of adequacy (phenomenology)Start with the meaning world of the social actors; researchers bring concepts to help social actors interpret their experiences (double hermeneuti

10、cs)“Ideal types”Phenomenology （現象學）: interpretive communities, “multiple realities,” intersubjectivity （互為主觀）; “thick description” (C. Geertz)II. U.S. media studies tradition OUTLINE:Chicago (WWI-WWII): PragmatismColumbia (after WWII): Structural-functionalismComparisonUS media studies Application o

11、f American value of equality of opportunity to communication: knowledge gap, images of minorities and gender Journalistic performance: election, organization and function of the community press Otherwise: unclassifiable, ramblingPragmatism 實踐論(1): Chicago John Dewey, William James, G. H. Mead Rapid

12、expansion of US capitalism: industrialization, immigration, urbanization Critical of industrial capitalism; favors gradual reform (The Progressive Movement) “Community”: free, active & creative participants in the political life (Jeffersonian democracy) Democratic ideals: correct the abuse of po

13、wer with citizen action, state regulation, educational reform, and endowed newspapers.Pragmatism (2): Chicago Focus on consequences & possibilities for action Public communication as integrating & socializing forces:Moral issues about democratic participation: knowledge & use of symbolic

14、 powerIssues of social control, manipulation of public opinion, the predatory nature of American industry (unequal wealth concentration)Chicago School Saw news, newspapers & publics as an urban phenomena of social psychology Committed to “responsible capitalism” & liberal democracy: rational

15、 public; news media enhance rational societal discourse; liberal premise that readers have access to diverse sources of accounts Reformist impulse Ahistorical; optimistic. Insensitive to class stratification, domination, & property ramifications. Examples of media studies Robert Park: The natura

16、l history of newspapers; news vs. knowledge; the immigrant press and social control. Herbert Blumer: public opinion; public,crowd,mass; movie-goers Morris Janowitz: community press Kurt and Gladys Lang: constructed reality of TVLippmann: Critic of pragmatism Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (1922) Ir

17、rationality in political process and peoples biases, prejudices, and feelingStereotypesThe buying publicManufacture of consent, the role of PR agents Advocating for the role of elite intellectuals in public opinion Structural Functionalism結構功能論 Parsons: grand theory, social system; conflict as socia

18、l disease Merton: middle-range theories; net & survival consequences of manifest vs. latent functions/dysfunctions Coser: functions of social conflict Neofunctionalism: revival of interest in Parsons to construct a grand viewCritique of Parsons “out of this world”: no empirical content (Bottomor

19、e) Little attention to conflict: conservative bias (Gouldner, Coser, Dahrendorf) Lacking in critical-interpretive insights (Habermas, MaCarthy) Marxist critique (Frank) Neofunctionalist critique (Alexander)Merton (1)Manifest function明顯功能For (a) culture (b) society (c) groups, and (d) individuals?Lat

20、ent function潛在功能Manifest dysfunction明顯負功能Latent dysfunction潛在負功能Merton (2) Manifest vs. latent function Function vs. dysfunction To whom: culture, society, organization, individual, intra-personal? Functionalist analysis: 溯因法 reason backwards from a stable pattern of consequencesAre dysfunctions pos

21、t-hoc?Conservative? (system maintenance)Functions of communication (Harold Lasswell) Surveillance of the environment監督環境 Correlation of parts and the social whole 結合部分與全體 Cultural transmission文化承傳 and socialization(Note: all manifest functions!)Extension of Lasswells model (Wright) Manifest/latent f

22、unctions/dysfunctions ofSurveillanceCorrelationCultural transmissionEntertainment For whom?Cultural systemGroupsSubgroupsIndividuals 4 x 4 x 4Another example: uses & gratifications Manifest/latent functions/dysfunctions of psychological needs (to be gratified) But for whom?Competing needsCompeti

23、ng means to gratify the same needs (media vs. non-media)Varies with individuals or groups?Structural critique?Functional management of conflict L. Coser, R. Dahrendorf Example: conditions for closing the knowledge gapLocal issues of basic concerns:Conflict issues: “the whole town talks about it”Comm

24、unity structure: pluralistic vs. homogeneous Redundancy, ceiling effectTichenor et al., structural conflict of communication Max WeberGeorg SimmelRobert Park, George Herbert Mead (pragmatism)Morris Janowitz (community press as an agent of social integration) Talcott ParsonsRobert K. MertonLewis Cose

25、r: functional management of conflict(Structural-functionalism)Chicago vs. Columbia (1)Chicago: Between WWI-WWII.Columbia: 1940s-1960s1. Focus: Press as a social cultural institution, relating to urban growth & immigration. Media as agents to restore broad moral & political consensus threaten

26、ed by industrialization, urbanization & immigr. Focus on media effects; sociostructural determinants of the media largely unproblematic due to market & military interests.Chicago vs. Columbia (2)2. Paradigm: Pragmatism-collective behavior; social control; symbolic interaction; phenomenology.

27、Structural functionalism: system maintenance3. Methods: participant observation, history, “methods of anthropologists”, community studies, reaction against trends in quantificationQuantitative methods: sample survey, content analysis; not hospitable to historyChicago vs. Columbia (3)4. Epistemology:

28、 empirical and interpretive (social meaning)Empirical-positive (social facts)5. Examples: Park (natural history of the press; immigrant press), Blumer (public op); Janowitz; Lang & LangLarzarsfeld & Katz (two-step flow); Merton; Berelson (voting); diffusion of news; uses & grats Weakness

29、es of US media studies Hesitate to address larger themes & controversies from which the real world of mass communication cannot be isolated. Scholarly debates muted. Imbalanced research attention Have not managed to resolve certain ideological dilemmas. Amazingly parochial.III. Critical media st

30、udies OUTLINEMarxism as a science (political economy)Marxism as a critique (Frankfurt school, cultural studies)What is “determination”: “In the last instance” or “in the first instance”?Features of critical European media studies (1) Media as agencies of social legitimationto reaffirm ultimate value

31、s standards and beliefs, uphold the status quo Favor macroscopic levels of inquiry:Development of media institutions, structures; patterns of professional controlEconomic, legal, political, professional, technological considerations of whats made available by the mediaFeatures of critical European m

32、edia studies (2) Probing sharply ideology. Dismiss liberal-democratic press philosophy as out of touch Tendency toward policy orientationEuropean Marxisms Vulgar (mechanical) Marxism: the superstructure as one-to-one reflection of the base Western neo-MarxismsGermany: Frankfurt school (Adorno, Horkh

33、eimer, Benjamin, Marcuse, Habermas)France: structuralsts (Althusser)Italy: hegemony (A. Gramsci)British cultural studies (R. Williams, S. Hall)(Hungary: literary theory, G. Lucas)Marxism as science or critique (1)“Mature Marx” (after 1844): To understand the world“Young Marx”: To change the world1.

34、Deep Structure: Determinism; rational understanding of the political economy of the laws of capitalismVoluntarism: political practice; the free labor contributes toward emancipation; person as free agent2. Paradigm: materialism, anti-Hegelian Darwinism; evolutionismHegalian revolutionism; idealism;

35、discontinuous, abrupt changeMarxism as science or critique (2)“Mature Marx”“Young Marx”3, Cognitive style: infrastructure-superstructure; ideology=distorted reflection of domination.Science & technology=forces of productionTotality; process of social formation, hegemony. Ideology=rationality. Se

36、eking transcendental, moral reinvigoration Marxism as science or critique (3)“Mature Marx”“Young Marx”4. Methodology: positivismHistoricism5. Politics: revisionism, ritualism, sectarianism Adventurism; opportunism, revolutionary messianismMarxism as science or critique (4)“Mature Marx”“Young Marx”6.

37、 Major concepts: objectified reality, exploitationConsciousness, will, alienation7. Marxs work: The CapitalEconomic & Phil. Manuscripts (written 1844, pub. 1932); Grundrisse (1939)Marxism as science or critique (5)“Mature Marx”“Young Marx” 8. Leading Marxists: Althusser, PluntzasLucas, Frankfurt

38、 Schl, Gramsci9. Media studies: Political economy of communicationCultural studies; Frankfurt School critiquePolitical economy of communication (Murdock & Golding)1. Action/power: who controls media corp.?Instrumentalist: individual capitalists; capitalist classPluralist: managerial control vs.

39、owners; compete with other elites in society2. Structural limits: what factors constrain corp.?Neo-Marxists: political economy (capitalism)Commercialism: laissez-faire, consumer sovereignty政治經濟學的悖論 （1）1 政治綱領：現實的，注重時效的，支持“負責的資本主義”。理想的，批判資本主義，支持各式社會主義。2 類型：“政治的”政治經濟學“經濟的”政治經濟學3 適用地區；晚生的發展中國家，第三世界，權威統治

40、地區發達資本主義國家政治經濟學的悖論 （1）1 政治綱領：現實的，注重時效的，支持“負責的資本主義”。理想的，批判資本主義，支持各式社會主義。2 類型：“政治的”政治經濟學“經濟的”政治經濟學3 適用地區；晚生的發展中國家，第三世界，權威統治地區發達資本主義國家政治經濟學的悖論 （2）4 政權的角色：主要的。塑造經濟和媒介政策，威脅媒介自由。次要的，派生的。5 市場的角色：提倡多元性，抵銷政權的專斷力。資本累積、市場集中壟斷限制媒介多元，產生資訊分配失衡。6 媒介專業主義：提倡多元自主，“可信度的信條”。“策略性的儀式”，強化既有秩序；專業主義的粗暴。Frankfurt School To g

41、enerate progressive and positive social development by exposing the underlying contradictions of class societies. Habermas: “public sphere” to explore the prospect of a politics based on critical & reflective discourse Bourgeois culture: a culture of consumers, not of critically questioning &

42、; politically concerned persons, of spectators to be entertained. The public is managed by large organizations.“Determine” “The superstructure is in the final instance determined by the economic base.”Social being determines social consciousnessBase: mode of production at a particular stage of devel

43、opment of the material productive forces (dynamic, active, contradictory)Superstructure: law, politics, ideology, cultural practicesRaymond Williams ReflectionOne-to-one relationship (mechanical)?Conditioning: too weak Mediation: Dynamic social formation; process of practical struggle (has advantage

44、 over totality)Setting limits (passive), exert pressures (active), socialization “In the first instance” (Hall)Hegemony Emphasizes domination but allows for variation, contradiction, alternatives, and change Dominant ideology (preferred reading) vs. alternative ideology (negotiated reading) vs. oppo

45、sitional ideology (oppositional ideology) Dominant vs. residual vs. emergent structuresExamples Todd Gitlin: Medias making and unmaking of the New Left (hegemony) Raymond Williams: television: technology and its social form. Hall: race, class Gender, feminist media studiesIV. Comparison OUTLINEPragm

46、atism vs. MarxismStructural-functionalism vs. MarxismPragmatism vs. Marxism (1)1. Dewey defines communication as individuals in association with others.Communication as collective existence, struggle against political & economic domination.2. Knowledge for self-corrective measures. Social contro

47、l for the common good. Neglect structural relations between culture & economic powerCommunication is central in the historical process of alienation & emancipation. Pragmatism vs. Marxism (2)3. Liberal analysis of comm., relates democracy to political, economic issues of freedom of inquiry,

48、dissemination of information.Critique democracys identification with the discourse of capitalism (the market & consumption).4. Critical of specific cultural conditions, focusing on corrective action. Democracy is a practice grounded in peoples ability to share experience thru comm., free from manipulationPragmatism vs. Marxism (3)5. Communications as systems, as environment; communication & participationFocus on societal conditions for competence, political economy, life processes.6.