1、the principles of economics.經濟學的原理(英譯中) 標簽:作者標簽:來源標簽:時間the word economy comes from the greek word for one who manages a household. at first, this origin might seem peculiar.經濟這個字眼來自希臘語中“家庭的管理者”，一開始，這個起源似乎看上去有些特殊。but, in fact, households and economies have much in common.但是，實際上，家庭和經濟有許多的共同之處。a househ

2、old faces many decisions.一個家庭面臨很多的決定。it must decide which members of the household do which tasks and what each member gets in return:它必須要決定家庭成員要完成任務，并且將每個家庭中的成員都安排在內。who cooks dinner?誰燒正餐？who does the laundry?誰做洗衣服？who gets the extra dessert at dinner?誰可以得到額外的餐后甜點？who gets to choose what tv show to

3、 watch?誰可以選擇電視節目來看？in short, the household must allocate its scarce resources among its various members, taking into account each members abilities, efforts, and desires.總之，家庭必須把其缺乏的資源分配給其中的各種成員，并把每個成員能力，努力和愿望考慮進去，-like a household, a society faces many decisions.和家庭一樣，社會也面臨很多的決定。a society must deci

4、de what jobs will be done and who will do them.社會必須決定工作將要被完成，由誰來完成它們。it needs some people to grow food, other people to make clothing, and still others to design computer software.它需要一些人來種植糧食，一些人來制作服裝，還需要一些人來設計電腦軟件。once society has allocated people (as well as land, buildings, and machines) to vario

5、us jobs, it must decide who will eat caviar and who will eat potatoes.一旦社會分派人們（比如陸地，建筑物和機器）做各種不同的工作，它肯定決定誰將吃魚子醬，誰將吃馬鈴薯。it must decide who will drive a porsche and who will take the bus.它肯定決定誰將開保時捷，誰將乘公共汽車。the management of societys resources is important because resources are scarce.因為資源缺乏所以社會資源的管理是

6、非常重要的。scarcity means that society has less to offer than people wish to have.不足意味著社會的供應不能滿足人們的期望值。just as a household cannot give every member everything he or she wants, a society cannot give every individual the highest standard of living to which he or she might aspire.就像家庭不能滿足所有成員的需求一樣，社會不能給所有個體

7、以他們所期待的最高的生活標準。economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources.經濟學就是研究社會如何管理其缺乏的資源的方法。-in most societies, resources are allocated not by a single central planner but through the combined actions of millions of households and firms.在大部分的社會中，資源并不是被單一的中心計劃者分配而是由數百萬家庭與企業相結合的行動分配。econo

8、mists therefore study how people make decisions:因此經濟學家研究人們如何做決定：how much they work, what they buy, how much they save, and how they invest their savings.他們做多少工作，他們買什么，他們節省多少，并且他們怎樣用存款進行投資。economists also study how people interact with one another.經濟學家也研究人們之間的相互影響。for instance, they examine how the m

9、ultitude of buyers and sellers of a good together determine the price at which the good is sold and the quantity that is sold and the economy as a whole, including the growth in average income, the fraction of the population that cannot find work, and the rate at which prices are rising.例如，他們調查一件商品的

10、顧客群和賣主是如何一起來制定出這件被售商品的價格，數量和整體的經濟情況，包括平均收入的增長，小部分人口的失業，和價格上漲的速率。although the study of economics has many facets, the field is unified by several cen1234567下一頁tral ideas.盡管經濟學的研究存在很多的側面，但這一領域被幾個中心的想法所統一。in the rest of this chapter, we look at ten principles of economics.在這章的余下的部分中，我們看一下經濟學的10個原則。thes

11、e principles recur throughout this book and are introduced here to give you an overview of what economics is all about.這些原則重復貫穿于這本書中，向你們介紹對經濟學的一個總體的看法。-how people make decisions.人們該怎樣做決定。there is no mystery to what an economy is.“經濟”是什么，并不神秘。whether we are talking about the economy of los angeles, o

12、f the united state, or of the whole world, an economy is just a group of people interacting with one another as they go about their lives.無論我們談論美國洛杉磯的經濟，還是全球世界經濟，經濟都是一群人們與其他人的相互作用影響，就好像他們著手的人生一樣。-because the behavior of an economy reflects the behavior of the individuals who make up the economy, we

13、start our study of economics with four principles of individual decision-making.因為經濟的行為反映組成經濟的個體的行為，我們以個體做決定的4原則來開始經濟學的研究。principle 1 people face tradeoffs.原則1，人們面對交易。the first lesson about making decisions is summarized in the adage:關于下決定的第一個功課被概括在格言中：there is no such thing as a free lunch.“沒有免費的午餐

14、”。to get one thing that we like, we usually have to give up another thing that we like.為了得到我們所喜歡的一件東西，我們通常不得不放棄另一件我們所喜歡的東西。making decisions requires trading off one goal against another.做決定需要用一個目標取代其它所有的目標。consider a student who must decide how to allocate her most valuable resource her time.考慮一個學生必

15、須決定如何來分配她的最有價值的資源和她的時間。-she can spend all of her time studying economics;她可以花費她全部的時間來學習經濟學。she can spend all her time studying psychology;她可以花費她全部的時間來學習心理學。or she can divide her time between the two fields.或者，她可以將她的時間分配給這兩門學科。for every hour she studies one subject, she gives up an hour she could hav

16、e used studying the other.每個小時她學習一門學科，放棄一個小時她可能已經用它來學習其它的事情。and for every hour she spends studying, she gives up an hour that she could have spent napping, bike riding, watching tv, or working at her part-time job for some extra spending money.并且，每一小時她都用來學習，放棄一個小時她可以打盹，騎自行車，看電視，或做一份能為她帶來額外花銷的兼職。or c

17、onsider parents deciding how to spend their family income.或者，考慮父母如何決定家庭收入的開支。they can buy food, clothing, or a family vacation.他們可以買食物，服裝或一個家庭度假。or they can save some of the family income for retirement or the childrens college education.或者，他們可心為自己的退休或子女們的大學教育儲蓄一部分的家庭收入。when they choose to spend an

18、extra dollar on one of these goods, they have one less dollar to spend on some other good.當他們選擇在這個商品的上花費額外的一美元的時候，他們已經沒有能力在其它的商品上花費了。when people are grouped into societies, they face different kinds of tradeoffs.當人們被分類進入社會的時候，他們面對各種不同的種類的交易。the classic tradeoff is between guns and butter.一個“槍與黃油”之間的

19、經典的交易。the more we spend on national defense to protect our shores form foreign aggressors (guns), the less we can spend on personal goods to raise our standard of living at home (butter).我們為保護邊岸不受外國的侵略而在國防上花費的錢越多（槍），在國內我們花費在提高生活水平的商品上的錢就越少（黃油）。-also important in modern society is the tradeoff betwee

20、n a clean environment and a high level of income.在當今社會中清潔的環境和高收入水平之間的交易也是重要的。laws that require firms to reduce pollution raise the cost of producing goods and devices.法律要求企業減少污染提高生產產品和設備的成本。because of the higher costs, these firms end up earning smaller profits, paying lower wages, charging higher p

21、rices, or some combination of these three.由于更高的成本，這些將結束賺取更小的利潤，支付更低的工資，索取更高的價格，或者這三者的合并。-thus, while pollution regulations give us the benefit of a cleaner environment and the improved health that comes with it, they have the cost of reducing the incomes of the firms owners, workers, and customers.這

22、樣，當污穢規章給我們更清潔的環境和改善健康的利益到來的時候，他們的成本就是企業所有者，工人和顧客所減少的收入。another tradeoff society faces is between efficiency and equity.另一個社會所面對的是效率和公正之間交易。efficiency means that society is getting the most it can from its scarce resources.效率表示社會在最大限度的使用它有限資源中的獲取。equity means that the benefits of those resources are

23、distributed fairly among societys members.公正表示那些資源的利益被公平的分布在社會成員中。-in other words, efficiency refers to the size of the economic pie, and equity refers to how the pie is divided often, when government policies are being designed, and these two goals conflict.換句話說，效率是指經濟餡餅的尺寸，而公正是指當政府的政策已經被設定，這兩個目標有沖

24、突的時候餡餅經常被分配的方法。-consider, for instance, policies aimed at achieving a more equal distribution of economic well-being.考慮，例如，政策針對完成更相等的經濟上的福利分配。-some of these policies, such as the welfare system or unemployment insurance, try to help those members of society who are most in need.這些政策，類似福利制度或失業保險政策，都努

25、力去幫助那些最需要幫助的社會成員。others, such as the individual income tax, ask the financially successful to contribute more than others to support the government.此外，類似個人所得稅，要求財政上成功的個人貢獻比其它人更多的所得稅來支持政府。although these policies have the benefit of achieving greater equity, they have a cost in terms of reduced effici

26、ency.盡管這些政策有完成更公平的利益，但他們在減少的效率方面有成本。when the government redistributes income from the rich to the poor, it reduces the reward for working hard;當政府重新從有錢人到窮人再次分配收入的時候，它會減少努力工作所得的報酬；as a result, people work less and produce fewer goods and services.其結果，人們工作的更少，商品生產的更少和服務的更少。-in other words, when the go

27、vernment tries to cut the economic pie into more equal slices, the pie gets smaller.換句話說，當政府努力去把經濟的餡餅切成更相等的切片時候，餡餅就變得更小。recognizing that people face tradeoffs des not by itself tell us what decisions they will or should make.承認人們面對交易不是通過它本身，告訴我們他們將做或者應該做什么樣的決定。-a student should not abandon the study

28、 of psychology just because doing so would increase the time available for the study of economics.正因為這樣去做將增加可以用于研究經濟學的可利用的時間所以學生不應該放棄心理學的研究。society should not stop protecting the environment just because environmental regulations reduce our material standard of living.正因為環境的規章減少我們生活水平的原料，所以社會有應該停止對環

29、境的保護。the poor should not be ignored just because helping them distorts work incentives.正因為幫助他們曲解工作動機所以窮人不應該被忽視。nonetheless, acknowledging lifes tradeoffs is important because people are likely to make good decisions only if they understand the positions that they have available.盡管如此，承認生活面臨交易是重要的，因為如

30、果他們懂得了他們可利用的情勢，人們有可能做一個好的決定。principle 2 the cost of something is what you give up to get it.原則2，一些你要放棄去得到的成本。because people face tradeoffs, making decisions requires comparing the costs and benefits of alternative course of action.因為人們面對交易，下決定需要比較選擇路線的成本和利益。in many cases, however, the cost of some a

31、ction is not as obvious as it might first appear.不過，在很多的案例中，一些行動的成本不和它同樣明顯的首先出現。consider, for example, the decision whether to go to college.舉個例子，考慮是否去上大學的決定。the benefit is intellectual enrichment and a lifetime of better job opportunities.利益是智力的財富和的終生較好的工作機會。but what is the cost?但是，成本是什么？-to answer

32、 this question, you might be tempted to add up the money you spend on tuition, books, room, and board.為了答復這問題，你愿意被慫恿將你花費在學費，書，房租和善食費用上的錢加起來。yet this total does not truly represent what you dive up to spend a year in college.然而，這個合計的數字并不真正說明你將在學院度過一年的花費。the first problem with this answer is that it i

33、ncludes some things that are not really costs of going to college.這個答案中第一個問題是它包括了一些不是真的去學院的花費成本在內。even if you quit school, you would need a place to sleep and food to eat.即使你學校退學，你仍將需要睡覺的地方和吃的食物。room and board are costs of going to college only to the extent that they are more expensive at college t

34、han elsewhere.去學院的房間和膳食費用的成本僅僅是學院里與其它地方相比較高的那個范圍。-indeed, the cost of room and board at your school mighty be less than the rent and food expenses that you would pay living on your own, in this case, the savings on room and board are a benefit of going to college.當然，學校房租和膳食的成本一定要比你自己居住時的租金與食費少，在這種情況

35、下，去大學的利益就在于節省租金和食物開銷。-the second problem with this calculation of costs is that it ignores the largest cost of going to college-your time.成本的計算中的第二個問題是它忽略了去大學的最大的成本你的時間。-when you spend a year listening to lectures, reading textbooks, and writing papers, you cannot spend that time working at a job.當你

36、花費一年來聽課，讀教科書和答卷的時候，你就不能用這個時間去工作。for most students, the wages given up to attend school are the largest single cost of their education.對大部分的學生而言，為了上學校而放棄的工資是他們教育的最大的單一的成本。nextpagethe opportunity cost of an item is what you give up to get that item.機會成本就是你為了得到這個項目而要放棄另外一個項目。when making any decision, s

37、uch as whether to attend college, decision makers should be aware of the opportunity costs that accompany each possible action, in fact, they usually are.給做一個類似是否上學院的決定的時候，做決定的人應該知道機會成本隨伴每個可能的行動，實際上，他們通常是這樣的。college-age athletes who can earn millions if they drop ort of school and play professional

38、sports are well aware that their opportunity cost of college is very high.如果離開學校從事職業運動可能賺取百萬元的大學生運動員，很清夢他們讀大學的機會成本非常高。it is not surprising that they often decide that the benefit is not worth the cost.他們經常決定利益并不與成本等值，并不令人吃驚。principle 3 rational people think at the margin.原則的3，人們在差額上的合理思考。many decisi

39、ons in life involve making small incremental adjustments to an existing plan of action.一生中的很多決定包括給目前行動的計劃做小的漸漸增加的調整。-economists call these marginal changes.經濟學家稱這些為邊際的變化。in many situations, people will make the best decisions by thinking at the margin.在很多的情況下，人們考慮了差額后將會做出最好的決定。suppose, for instance,

40、 that a friend asks your advice about how many years to stay in school.推測一下，例如朋友向你征求在學校呆多少年的建議。if you were to compare for him the life style of a person with a ph.d. to that of a grade school dropout, he might complain that this comparison is not helpful for his decision.如果你為他將一個有哲學博士的人的生活方式與一個中途綴學生

41、相比較，他將會抱怨道這比較對他的決定來說沒有幫助。your friend is more likely to have some education already and to be deciding whether to spend an extra year or two in school.你的朋友更有可能已經接受一些教育，在決定是否在學校花費額外的一年或二年時間。to make this decision, he needs to know the additional benefits that an extra year in school would offer and the

42、 additional costs that he would incur.為了下這個決定，他需要知道上額外一年的學將提供的額外的利益和他將承受的額外的成本。by comparing these marginal benefits and marginal costs, he can evaluate whether the extra year is worthwhile.通過對這些差額利潤和差額成本的比較，他將會評價額外的一年是否有價值。as another example of how thinking at the margin helps decision making, consi

43、der an airline deciding how much to charge passengers who fly standby.作為另一個考慮差額幫助做出決定的方法的例子，考慮一個航空公司決定向準備飛行的乘客收取多少費用.suppose that flying a 200-seat plane across the country costs the airline 100000.in this case, the average cost of each seat is 100000/200,which is 500.假設駕駛200-座位飛機穿過這個國家將花費這個航空公司1000

44、00美元.在這種情況下,每個座位的平均成本是100000除以$200,即500美元。one might be tempted to conclude that the airline should never sell a ticket for less than 500.得出的結論只有一種可能航空公司決不以比500低的價格售票。yet the airline can raise its profits by thinking at the margin.然而，航空公司可以通過在價格差額帶來的利益思考來提高其利益。suppose that a plane is about to take of

45、f with ten empty seats.假設即將起飛的飛機有10空的座位。a standby passenger is waiting at the gate willing to pay 300 for a seat.一個在大門處等待機座的乘客樂于為這個座位支付300的費用。should the air line sell it to him?航空公司應該將這個座位賣給他嗎?of course it should.當然應該。if the plane has empty seats, the cost of adding one more passenger is minuscule,

46、although the average cost of flying a passenger is 500, the marginal cost is merely the cost of the bag of peanuts and can of soda that the extra passenger will consume.如果飛機有空的座位, 每增加一個乘客成本就會更小,盡管每位飛行乘客的平均成本是500美元,邊緣的價格僅僅是乘客將額外消費的花生和罐裝汽水的價格.as long as the standby passenger pays more than the margina

47、l cost, selling him a ticket is profitable.只要等待機座的乘客支付的價錢比邊緣價格高，賣給他票是有利可圖。as these examples show, individuals and firms can make better decisions by thinking at the margin.這些例子表明，通過在價格差額上的思考個人和企業能做出更好決定。a rational decision maker takes an action if and only if the marginal benefit of the action excee

48、ds the marginal cost.只有當這個行動帶來邊際利潤超出它的邊際成本時,一個理性的決策制定者才可以實施這個行動。-principle 4 people respond to incentives.原則4,人們對刺激性因素的響應。because people make decisions by comparing costs and benefits, their behavior may change when the costs or benefits change.因為人們通過比較成本和利益來做決定，所以當成本或利益變化的時候，他們的行為可以變化。that is, peop

49、le respond to incentives.那就是，人們對刺激性因素的響應。when the price of an apple rises, for instance, people decide to eat more pears and fewer apples, because the cost of buying an apple is higher.例如，當蘋果的價格上漲時候,人們因為買蘋果的成本高所以決定多吃洋梨和少吃蘋果。at the same time, apple orchards decide to hire more workers and harvest mor

50、e apples, because the benefit of selling an apple is also higher.同時，蘋果果園決定雇用更多的工人收獲更多的蘋果，因為賣蘋果的利益也更高。-the central role of incentives in determining behavior is important for those designing public policy.刺激性因素的中心的角色在決定行為中對那些有計劃的公眾政策是重要的。-public policies often alter the costs or benefits of private a

51、ctions.公共的政策經常改變私人的行動的成本或利益。when policymakers fail to consider how behavior might change as a result, their policies can have effects that they did not intend.當政策的制定者不思索行為怎樣可以其結果改變的時候，他們的政策會有他們沒有預計到的后果。as an example of such unintended effects, consider public policy toward seat belts and auto safety

52、, in the 1950s few cars had seat belts.對于安全帶和汽車安全考慮的公眾政策的非故意的影響的一個例子,因此，在五十年代只有極少的汽車有安全帶。-today all cars do, and the reason for the change id public policy.今日全部汽車都有了，原因在于改變社會政策。-in the late 1960s, ralph nadirs book unsafe at nay speed generated much public concern over auto safety, congress responde

53、d with legislation requiring car companies to make various safety features, including seat belts, standard equipment on all new cars.在60年代末期, 拉爾夫的書在速度產生的危險, 使很多公共關心汽車的安全,國會根據立法做出響應要求汽車制造廠商制造各種的安全部件,包括安全帶,標準的裝備在所有的新車上how does a seat belt law affect auto safety?安全帶法律是怎樣影響汽車安全的？the direct effect is obv

54、ious.直接的效果是明顯。with seat belts in all cars, more people wear seat belts, and the probability of surviving a major auto accident rises.全部汽車都有安全帶，更多的人們系安全帶，在一場重大交通事故中生還的可能性在上升.。in this sense, seat belts save lives.在這種意義下，安全帶挽救了生命。this direct impact of seat belts on safety is what motivated congress to

55、require seat belts.安全帶的對安全的直接的影響是促使國會做出安全帶的要求。yet, to understand fully the effects of this law, one must recognize that people change their behavior in response the incentives they face.然而,更充分地理解這法律的效果，必須承認人們在面對的刺激性因素的響應中改變他們的行為他們。in this case, the relevant behavior is the speed and care with which

56、drivers operate their automobiles.在這種情況下，有關的行為是速度和對司機駕駛汽車的擔心。driving slowly and carefully is costly because it uses the drivers time and energy.慢速的小心的駕駛的代價是昂貴的因為它占用了司機的時間和精力。when deciding how safely to drive, rational people compare the marginal benefit from safer driving to the marginal cost.當決定了怎么

57、安全地駕駛的時候，理性的人們把安全的駕駛帶來的邊際利益與它的邊際成本相比較。the drive more slowly and carefully when the benefit of increased safety is high.當增加的安全的利益高的時候,人們更慢速和小心的駕駛.-this explains why people drive more slowly and carefully when roads are icy than when roads are clear.這解釋了為什么當道路被冰覆蓋的時候，人們要比路況好的時候更慢速和慎重地駕駛的理由。now consider how a seat belt law alte