OrganizationalBehaviorEighteenthEditionChapter7MotivationConceptsCopyright?2019,2017,2015,2013PearsonEducation,Inc.AllRightsReserved.LearningObjectives(1of2)7.1Describethethreekeyelementsofmotivation.7.2Comparetheearlytheoriesofmotivation.7.3Contrasttheelementsofself-determinationtheoryandgoal-settingtheory.7.4Understandthedifferencesamongself-efficacytheory,reinforcementtheory,andexpectancytheory.LearningObjectives(2of2)7.5Describetheformsoforganizationaljustice,includingdistributivejustice,proceduraljustice,informationaljustice,andinteractionaljustice.7.6Identifytheimplicationsofemployeejobengagementformanagers.7.7Describehowthecontemporarytheoriesofmotivationcomplementoneanother.DescribetheThreeKeyElementsofMotivation(1of2)Motivationistheprocessesthataccountforanindividual’sintensity,direction,andpersistenceofefforttowardattainingagoal.Thelevelofmotivationvariesbothbetweenindividualsandwithinindividualsatdifferenttimes.DescribetheThreeKeyElementsofMotivation(2of2)Thethreekeyelementsofmotivationare:

Intensity:concernedwithhowhardapersontries.Direction:theorientationthatbenefitstheorganization.Persistence:

ameasureofhowlongapersoncanmaintainhis/hereffort.ComparetheEarlyTheoriesofMotivation(1of7)Exhibit7-1Maslow’sHierarchyofNeedsComparetheEarlyTheoriesofMotivation

(2of7)Maslow’sneedtheoryhasreceivedwiderecognition,particularlyamongpracticingmanagers.Itisintuitivelylogicalandeasytounderstandandsomeresearchhasvalidatedit.However,mostresearchdoesnot,andithasn’tbeenfrequentlyresearchedsincethe1960s.ComparetheEarlyTheoriesofMotivation(3of7)Exhibit7-2ComparisonofSatisfiersandDissatisfiersSource:BasedonHarvardBusinessReview,“ComparisonofSatisfiersandDissatisfiers,”AnexhibitfromOneMoreTime:HowDoYouMotivateEmployees?byFrederickHerzberg,January2003.Copyright?2003bytheHarvardBusinessSchoolPublishingCorporation.Allrightsreserved.ComparetheEarlyTheoriesofMotivation(4of7)Exhibit7-3ContrastingViewofSatisfactionandDissatisfactionComparetheEarlyTheoriesofMotivation(5of7)CriticismsofHerzberg’stheory:Limitedbecauseitreliesonself-reports.Reliabilityofmethodologyisquestioned.Nooverallmeasureofsatisfactionwasutilized.ComparetheEarlyTheoriesofMotivation(6of7)McClelland’sTheoryofNeedsThetheoryfocusesonthreeneeds:Needforachievement(nAch):drivetoexcel,toachieveinrelationtoasetofstandards,tostrivetosucceed.Needforpower(nPow):needtomakeothersbehaveinawaythattheywouldnothavebehavedotherwise.Needforaffiliation(nAfl):desireforfriendlyandcloseinterpersonalrelationships.ComparetheEarlyTheoriesofMotivation(7of7)McClelland’stheoryhashadthebestsupport.Ithaslesspracticaleffectthantheothers.BecauseMcClellandarguedthatthethreeneedsaresubconscious—wemayrankhighonthembutnotknowit—measuringthemisnoteasy.Itismorecommontofindsituationsinwhichmanagersawareofthesemotivationaldriverslabelemployeesbasedonobservationsmadeovertime.Self-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory

(1of9)Self-DeterminationTheoryPeopleprefertofeeltheyhavecontrolovertheiractions.Focusonthebeneficialeffectsofintrinsicmotivationandharmfuleffectsofextrinsicmotivation.Cognitiveevaluationtheory-Whenpeoplearepaidforwork,itfeelslesslikesomethingtheywanttodoandmorelikesomethingtheyhavetodo.Proposesthatinadditiontobeingdrivenbyaneedforautonomy,peopleseekwaystoachievecompetenceandpositiveconnectionstoothers.Self-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory

(2of9)Whenextrinsicrewardsareusedaspayoffsforperformance,employeesfeeltheyaredoingagoodjob.Eliminatingextrinsicrewardscanalsoshiftanindividual’sperceptionofwhyheorsheworksonataskfromanexternaltoaninternalexplanation.Self-determinationtheoryacknowledgesthatextrinsicrewardscanimproveevenintrinsicmotivationunderspecificcircumstances.Self-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory(3of9)Whatdoesself-determinationtheorysuggestforprovidingrewards?Self-concordance:considershowstronglypeople’sreasonsforpursuinggoalsareconsistentwiththeirinterestsandcorevalues.Self-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory

(4of9)Whatdoesallofthismean?Forindividuals:Chooseyourjobforreasonsotherthanextrinsicrewards.Fororganizations:Provideintrinsicaswellasextrinsicincentives.Self-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory(5of9)Goal-SettingTheoryGoalstellanemployeewhatneedstobedoneandhowmucheffortisneeded.Evidencesuggests:Specificgoalsincreaseperformance.Difficultgoals,whenaccepted,resultinhigherperformancethandoeasygoals.Feedbackleadstohigherperformancethandoesnon-feedback.Self-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory(6of9)Threeotherfactorsinfluencingthegoals-performancerelationship:GoalcommitmentTaskcharacteristicsNationalcultureSelf-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory(7of9)Peopledifferinthewaytheyregulatetheirthoughtsandbehaviors.Thosewithapromotionfocusstriveforadvancementandaccomplishmentandapproachconditionsthatmovethemclosertowarddesiredgoals.Thosewithapreventionfocusstrivetofulfilldutiesandobligationsandavoidconditionsthatpullthemawayfromdesiredgoals.Self-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory(8of9)Exhibit7-4CascadingofObjectivesSelf-DeterminationTheoryvs.Goal-SettingTheory(9of9)GoalSettingandEthicsTherelationshipbetweengoalsettingandethicsisquitecomplex:ifweemphasizetheattainmentofgoals,whatisthecost?Wemayforgomasteringtasksandadoptavoidancetechniquessowedon’tlookbad,bothofwhichcaninclineustowardunethicalchoices.Self-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory

(1of8)Self-efficacytheoryisanindividual’sbeliefthatheorsheiscapableofperformingatask.EnactivemasteryVicariousmodelingVerbalpersuasionArousalAlsoknownassocialcognitivetheoryandsociallearningtheory.Self-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory(2of8)Exhibit7-5JointEffectsofGoalsandSelf-EfficacyonPerformanceSource:BasedonE.A.LockeandG.P.Latham,“BuildingaPracticallyUsefulTheoryofGoalSettingandTaskMotivation:A35-YearOdyssey,”AmericanPsychologist(September2002):705–17.Self-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory

(3of8)Implicationsofself-efficacytheory:ThebestwayforamanagertouseverbalpersuasionisthroughthePygmalioneffect.Aformofself-fulfillingprophecy–believinginsomethingcanmakeittrue.Trainingprogramsoftenmakeuseofenactivemasterybyhavingpeoplepracticeandbuildtheirskills.Self-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory(4of8)Reinforcementtheory:behaviorisafunctionofitsconsequences.Reinforcementconditionsbehavior.Behaviorisenvironmentallycaused.Goalsettingisacognitiveapproach:anindividual’spurposesdirecthisorheraction.Operantconditioningtheory:peoplelearntobehavetogetsomethingtheywantortoavoidsomethingtheydon’twant.B.F.Skinner’sbehaviorism.Self-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory(5of8)Social-learningtheory:wecanlearnthroughbothobservationanddirectexperience.Modelsarecentral,andfourprocessesdeterminetheirinfluenceonanindividual:AttentionalprocessesRetentionprocessesMotorreproductionprocessesReinforcementprocessesSelf-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory(6of8)Expectancytheory:atendencytoactinacertainwaydependsonanexpectationthattheactwillbefollowedbyagivenoutcomeandontheattractivenessofthatoutcometotheindividual.Threerelationships:Effort-performancerelationshipPerformance-rewardrelationshipRewards-personalgoalsrelationshipSelf-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory(7of8)Exhibit7-6ExpectancyTheorySelf-Efficacy,Reinforcement,andExpectancyTheory

(8of8)Expectancytheoryhelpsexplainwhyalotofworkersaren’tmotivatedanddoonlytheminimum.Threequestionsemployeesneedtoanswerintheaffirmativeiftheirmotivationistobemaximized:IfIgivemaximumeffort,willitberecognizedinmyperformanceappraisal?IfIgetagoodperformanceappraisal,willitleadtoorganizationalrewards?IfI’mrewarded,aretherewardsattractivetome?FormsofOrganizationalJustice(1of5)Exhibit7-7EquityTheoryRatioComparisons*PerceptionInequityduetobeingunderrewardedEquityInequityduetobeingoverrewarded

FormsofOrganizationalJustice(2of5)Whenemployeesperceiveaninequity,theycanbepredictedtomakeoneofsixchoices:Changeinputs.Changeoutcomes.Distortperceptionsofself.Distortperceptionsofothers.Chooseadifferentreferent.Leavethefield.FormsofOrganizationalJustice(3of5)Exhibit7-8ModelofOrganizationalJusticeFormsofOrganizationalJustice(4of5)JusticeOutcomesAllthetypesofjusticediscussedhavebeenlinkedtohigherlevelsoftaskperformanceandcitizenship.Third-party,orobserver,reactionstoinjusticecanbesubstantial.FormsofOrganizationalJustice(5of5)PromotingJusticeAdoptingstrongjusticeguidelinesinanattempttomandatecertainmanagerialbehaviorisn’tlikelytobeuniversallyeffective.CultureandJusticeInputsandoutcomesarevalueddifferentlyinvariouscultures.ImplicationsofJobEngagementforManagement(1of3)Jobengagement:theinvestmentofanemployee’sphysical,cognitive,andemotionalenergiesintojobperformance.Galluporganization:moreengagedemployeesinsuccessfulorganizationsthaninaverageorganizations.Academicstudies:jobengagementispositivelyassociatedwithperformanceandcitizenshipbehaviors.ImplicationsofJobEngagementforManagement(2of3)Whatmakespeoplemoreengagedintheirjob?Thedegreetowhichanemployeebelievesitismeaningfultoengageinwork.Amatchbetweentheindividual’svaluesandtheorganization’s.Leadershipbehaviorsthatinspireworkerstoagreatersenseofmission.ImplicationsofJobEngagementforManagement(3of3)Arehighlyengagedemployeesgetting“toomuchofagoodthing?”Constructispartiallyredundantwithjobattitudes.Itmayhavea“darkside.”Positiverelationshipsbetweenengagementandwork-familyconflict.CompareContemporaryTheoriesofMotivationExhibit7-9IntegratingContemporaryTheoriesofMotivationImplicationsforManagers(1of2)Makesureextrinsicrewardsforemployeesarenotviewedascoercive,butinsteadprovideinformationaboutcompetenceandrelatedness.Eithersetorinspireyouremployeestosetspecific,difficultgoalsandprovidequality,developmentalfeedbackontheirprogresstowardthosegoals.Trytoalignortieinemployeegoalstothegoalsofyourorganization.Modelthetypesofbehaviorsyouwouldliketoseeperformedbyyouremployees.ImplicationsforManagers(2of2)Expectancytheoryoffersapowerfulexplanationofperformancevariablessuchasemployeeproductivity,absenteeism,andturnover.Whenmakingdecisionsregardingresourcesinyourorganization,makesuretoconsiderhowtheresourcesarebeingdistributed(andwho’simpacted),thefairnessofthedecision,alongwithwhetheryouractionsdemonstratethatyourespectthoseinvolved.CopyrightOrganizationalBehaviorEighteenthEditionChapter8Motivation:FromConceptstoApplicationsCopyright?2019,2017,2015,2013PearsonEducation,Inc.AllRightsReserved.LearningObjectives8.1Describehowthejobcharacteristicsmodelmotivatesbychangingtheworkenvironment.8.2Comparethemainwaysjobscanberedesigned.8.3Explainhowspecificalternativeworkarrangementscanmotivateemployees.8.4Describehowemployeeinvolvementmeasurescanmotivateemployees.8.5Demonstratehowthedifferenttypesofvariable-payprogramscanincreaseemployeemotivation.8.6Showhowflexiblebenefitsturnbenefitsintomotivators.8.7Identifythemotivationalbenefitsofintrinsicrewards.TheJobCharacteristicsModel(1of2)Exhibit8-1TheJobCharacteristicsModelSource:BasedonJ.L.Pierce,I.Jussila,andA.Cummings,“PsychologicalOwnershipwithintheJobDesignContext:RevisionoftheJobCharacteristicsModel,”JournalofOrganizationalBehavior30,no.4(2009):477–96.TheJobCharacteristicsModel(2of2)Thecoredimensionsofthejobcharacteristicsmodel(JCM)canbecombinedintoasinglepredictiveindexcalledthemotivatingpotentialscore(MPS).EvidencesupportstheJCMconceptthatthepresenceofasetofjobcharacteristicsdoesgeneratehigherandmoresatisfyingjobperformance.StudiesshowthatsupportiveleadershipbehaviorsimprovedthejobcharacteristicsofR&Dprofessionals.ComparetheMainWaysJobsCanBeRedesigned(1of2)Repetitivejobsprovidelittlevariety,autonomy,ormotivation.JobRotationReferredtoascross-training.Periodicshiftingfromonetasktoanother.Strengths:reducesboredom,increasesmotivation,andhelpsemployeesbetterunderstandtheirworkcontributions.Weaknesses:createsdisruptions,requiresextratimeforsupervisorsaddressingquestionsandtrainingtime,andreducedefficiencies.ComparetheMainWaysJobsCanBeRedesigned(2of2)JobEnrichmentIncreasingajob’shigh-levelresponsibilitiestoincreaseintrinsicmotivation.Involvesaddinganotherlayerofresponsibilityandmeaning.Canbeeffectiveatreducingturnover.RelationalJobDesignTomakejobsmoreprosociallymotivating:Connectemployeeswiththebeneficiariesoftheirwork.Meetbeneficiariesfirsthand.HowSpecificAlternativeWorkArrangementsMotivateEmployees(1of7)Exhibit8-2PossibleFlextimeStaffSchedulesBlankSchedule1PercentTime:100%=40hoursperweekCoreHours:9:00A.M.–5:00P.M.,MondaythroughFriday(1hourlunch)WorkStartTime:Between8:00A.M.and9:00A.M.WorkEndTime:Between5:00P.M.and6:00P.M.BlankSchedule2PercentTime:100%=40hoursperweekWorkHours:8:00A.M.–6:30P.M.,MondaythroughThursday(1/2hourlunch)FridayoffWorkStartTime:8:00A.M.WorkEndTime:6:30P.M.HowSpecificAlternativeWorkArrangementsMotivateEmployees(2of7)[Exhibit8-2Continued]BlankSchedule3PercentTime:90%=36hoursperweekWorkHours:8:30A.M.–5:00P.M.,MondaythroughThursday

(1/2hourlunch)8:00A.M.–NoonFriday(nolunch)WorkStartTime:8:30A.M.(Monday–Thursday);8:00A.M.(Friday)WorkEndTime:5:00P.M.(Monday–Thursday);Noon(Friday)BlankSchedule4PercentTime:80%=32hoursperweekWorkHours:8:00A.M.–6:00P.M.,MondaythroughWednesday(1/2hourlunch)8:00A.M.–11:30A.M.Thursday(nolunch)FridayoffWorkStartTime:Between8:00A.M.and9:00A.M.WorkEndTime:Between5:00P.M.and6:00P.M.HowSpecificAlternativeWorkArrangementsMotivateEmployees(3of7)JobSharingTwoormorepeoplesplita40-hour-a-weekjob.Declininginuse.Canbedifficulttofindcompatiblepairsofemployeeswhocansuccessfullycoordinatetheintricaciesofonejob.Increasesflexibilityandcanincreasemotivationandsatisfactionwhena40-hour-a-weekjobisjustnotpractical.HowSpecificAlternativeWorkArrangementsMotivateEmployees(4of7)TelecommutingEmployeeswhodotheirworkathomeatleasttwodaysaweekthroughvirtualdeviceslinkedtotheemployer’soffice.Somewell-knownorganizationsactivelydiscouragetelecommuting,butformostorganizationsitremainspopular.HowSpecificAlternativeWorkArrangementsMotivateEmployees(5of7)TelecommutingAdvantagesPositivelyrelatedtoobjectiveperformanceandjobsatisfaction.Reducedwork-familyconflict.Reducedcarbonemissions.HowSpecificAlternativeWorkArrangementsMotivateEmployees(6of7)TelecommutingDisadvantagesEmployerSocialloafing.Difficulttocoordinateteamwork.Difficulttoevaluatenon-quantitativeperformance.EmployeeIncreasedfeelingsofisolationandreducedcoworkerrelationshipquality.Maynotbenoticedforhisorherefforts.HowSpecificAlternativeWorkArrangementsMotivateEmployees(7of7)OBPollWhoWorksfromHomeSource:BureauofLaborStatistics,Table6,fromEconomicNewsRelease,“AmericanTimeUseSurveySummary,”June24,2016,https:///news.release/atus.t06.htm.EmployeeInvolvementandEmployeeMotivation(1of3)EmployeeInvolvement:

aparticipativeprocessthatusesemployees’inputtoincreasetheircommitmenttotheorganization’ssuccess.ExamplesofEmployeeInvolvementProgramsParticipativemanagementRepresentativeparticipationEmployeeInvolvementandEmployeeMotivation(2of3)ParticipativemanagementJointdecisionmaking.Actsasapanaceaforpoormoraleandlowproductivity.Trustandconfidenceinleadersisessential.Studiesoftheparticipation-performancehaveyieldedmixedresults.EmployeeInvolvementandEmployeeMotivation(3of3)RepresentativeparticipationWorkersarerepresentedbyasmallgroupofemployeeswhoactuallyparticipateindecisionmaking.AlmosteverycountryinWesternEuroperequiresrepresentativeparticipation.Thetwomostcommonforms:WorkscouncilsBoardrepresentativesVariable-PayProgramsandEmployeeMotivation(1of8)WhattoPay:Complexprocessthatentailsbalancinginternalequity

andexternalequity.Someorganizationsprefertopayleadersbypayingabovemarket.Payingmoremaynetbetter-qualifiedandmorehighlymotivatedemployeeswhomaystaywiththefirmlonger.Variable-PayProgramsandEmployeeMotivation(2of8)HowtoPay:Variablepayprograms:Piece-rateplansMerit-basedpayBonusesProfitsharingEmployeestockownershipplansEarningsthereforefluctuateupanddown.Variable-PayProgramsandEmployeeMotivation(3of8)Piece-RatePayApurepiece-rateplanprovidesnobasesalaryandpaystheemployeeonlyforwhatheorsheproduces.Limitation:notafeasibleapproachformanyjobs.Themainconcernforbothindividualandteampiece-rateworkersisfinancialrisk.Variable-PayProgramsandEmployeeMotivation(4of8)Merit-BasedPayAllowsemployerstodifferentiatepaybasedonperformance.Createsperceptionsofrelationshipsbetweenperformanceandrewards.Limitations:Basedonannualperformanceappraisals.Meritpoolfluctuates.Unionresistance.Variable-PayProgramsandEmployeeMotivation(5of8)BonusesAnannualbonusisasignificantcomponentoftotalcompensationformanyjobs.Increasinglyincludelower-rankingemployees.Manycompaniesnowroutinelyrewardproductionemployeeswithbonuseswhenprofitsimprove.Downside:employees’payismorevulnerabletocuts.Variable-PayProgramsandEmployeeMotivation(6of8)Profit-Sharing

PlansOrganization-wideprogramsthatdistributecompensationbasedonsomeestablishedformulacenteredaroundacompany’sprofitability.Appeartohavepositiveeffectsonemployeeattitudesattheorganizationallevel.Employeeshaveafeelingofpsychologicalownership.Variable-PayProgramsandEmployeeMotivation(7of8)E