句法學復習要點及習題Inlinguistics,thewordSYNTAXreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinaLanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.SincesentenceisusuallyregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofaLanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecenterofgrammaticalstudy.Insomelanguages,grammaticalgenderhadlittletodowiththebiologicalsex.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.5.Theformsofwordscanberestrictedbygrammaticalcategoriesthroughconcordoragreementandthroughgovernment.concord(grammar)agreementbetweenwordsingender,number,etc,(e.g.betweenaverbandapluralnounasitssubject)TheideaofgovernmentisnecessaryinlanguageslikeLatinandGermantoaccountforthewayinwhichcertainprepositionsandverbsdeterminethecaseofnouns.Descriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)TheSTRUCTURALapproachtotheanalysisofLanguagewasstartedbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureinthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Saussurebelievesthat,languageisasystemofsigns,eachofwhichconsistsoftwoparts:signified(concept)andsignifier(soundimage).Saussureidentifiedtwoprincipaltypesofrelations:Syntagmaticrelationsandparadigmaticrelations.TheSyntagmaticrelation(結構關系,組合關系)istherelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.TheSTRUCTURALapproachtotheanalysisofLanguagewasstartedbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureinthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Therearesyntacticconditionsandsemanticconditionsthewordsmustmeet.4-2-aTheboykickedtheball.4-2-b*Boytheballkickedthe.4-2-c*Theballkickedtheboy.Wordsinand4-2-bviolatesyntacticrulesandin4-2-cviolatesemanticconditions.TheSyntagmaticrelation(結構關系,組合關系)istherelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.Theparadigmaticrelation(聚合體關系)SaussureoriginallycalledASSOCIATIVE,isarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinstructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.ThesequencewhichasignformswiththoseinasyntagmaticrelationissometimescalledaSTRUCTURE.Tousethewordinamorerestrictedsense,andtheclassofsignswhichareinaparadigmaticrelationaresometimescalledaSYSTEM.ThesyntagmaticrelationisnowadaysalsorefereedtoasHORIZONALRELATIONorchainrelation.AndtheparadigmaticrelationisalsoknownastheVERTICALrelationorCHOICErelation.immediateconstituentanalysisThisnotion(immediateconstituent)wasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistLeonardBloomfield(Language,1933.)Thisconstructionmaybeasentence,maybeawordgroup,mayalsobeaword.Thelastlevelofconstituentsismorphemes,knownasultimateconstituents.In1957,theAmericanlinguistChomskyproposedthetransformational-generativegrammar(TG)(轉換生成語法),thusprovidingamodelforthedescriptionofhumanlanguages.ThegoalofTGistofindoutasystemofrulestoaccountforthelinguisticcompetenceofnativespeakersofalanguagetoformgrammaticalsentences.Inhisaspectsofthetheoryofsyntax,Chomskysaysthatagenerativegrammarshouldconsistofthreecomponents:syntactic,phonological,andsemantic.theloveofGod,isaonlysurfacestructure.Thereareinfacttwodeepstructures:GodlovessomebodySomebodylovesGodCompetenceVsperformanceSurfaceStructureVsDeepStructurea.Theprofessor’sappointmentwasshocking.b.MaryandBillorJohnsentthegift.c.Thehorseisreadytoride.d.Oldmenandwomenarehardtolivewith.TheremayalsobeafunctionalanalysisintermsofTHEMEandRHEME.VilemMathesius:Inhisterminology,thefirsttermrefersto“thatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds”,andthesecond“whatthespeakerstatesout,orinregardto,thestartingpointoftheutterance”(Danes1974).Thethemeisthestartingpointforthemessage;itisthegroundfromwhichtheclauseistakingoff.(Halliday1994:38)Markedthemevs.UnmarkedthemeMyson’sbicyclewasstolen.Helenwillalsogowithyou.ItischaracteristicofHalliday’stheorythatmoreattentionispaidtoparadigmaticrelationsthantoSyntagmaticrelations,whichisthemainconcernofChyomsky.Hallidayarguesthattherearethreegeneralfunctionsoflanguage:ideational(whichissubdividedintoexperientialandlogical),interpersonalandtextual.Ⅲ.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.1.Syntax2.ICanalysisⅣ.Answerthefollowingquestions.1.Distinguishthetwopossiblemeaningsof“morebeautifulflowers”bymeansofICanalysis.答案1.Syntax:Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.2.ICanalysis:Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents–wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.Ⅳ.(1)more|beautifulflowers(2)morebeautiful|flowers語義學復習要點及習題1.Thenamingtheory（命名說）isoneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Theconceptualistview（概念論）isoneconcerningmeaning.Accordingtothisview,thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.Behaviorism:Accordingtothisview,themeaningofalanguageformisthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.(Bloomfield1933:139)Contextualism（語境論）：isaviewconcerningmeaningwhichholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context.Samereferencebutdifferentsense: e.g.VenusTheeveningstar west.(sunset) Themorningstar east.(sunrise)Sameobject(samereference)butdifferentsense(differentaspect);differentwaysofreferringtothesamething.Conceptualmeaningisalsocalled“denotative”（外延義）or“cognitive”meaning.Thisreferstothedefinitiongiveninthedictionary.Connotativemeaningmayvaryaccordingtoculture,historicalperiodandtheexperienceoftheindividual,andthusareindeterminateandopen-ended.Affectivemeaningindicatesthespeaker’sattitudetowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.Homonymyreferstocaseswherelexemeswiththesamephonologicalormorphologicalshapehavedifferentmeanings.Accordingtothesemanticrelationship,antonymscanbelooselydividedintothreecategories:1)Complementaryantonyms互補性反義Complementaryantonymsarealsocallednon-gradableantonyms.Theyarelexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesaremutuallyexclusive.Thepositiveofonesuggeststhenegativeoftheother.male---female;married---single;alive---dead;2)Gradableantonyms(可分等級的反義詞)Thereareoftenintermediateformbetweenthetwomembersofapairofantonyms.Soitisamatterofdegree.“old”and“young”3)Relationalantonyms（關系反義詞）Theyarepairsoflexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesdisplayareciprocal(相互的)relationship.husband---wifeMyonlylovesprungfrommyonlyhate!Tooearlyseenunknown,andknowntoolate.Antonymscanalsobeusedasarhetoricaldevicetomaketheexpressionsmorecontrastiveandimpressive.Toachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideastogether,toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthought.Meronymyisatermusedtodescribeapart-wholerelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.Hyponymyisusedtorefertoaspecific-generalsemanticrelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.RelationsbetweensentencesA.Entailment(蘊涵）B.Presupposition（前提，預設）C.Inconsistency（矛盾）D.Synonymy（同義）練習題：Whatarethethreekindsofantonymy?Accordingtothesemanticrelationship,antonymscanbelooselydividedintothreecategories:1)Complementaryantonyms互補性反義Complementaryantonymsarealsocallednon-gradableantonyms.Theyarelexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesaremutuallyexclusive.Thepositiveofonesuggeststhenegativeoftheother.male---female2)Gradableantonyms(可分等級的反義詞)Thereareoftenintermediateformbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.Forexample,“old”and“young”areimmediatelyrecognizedasantonyms,buttheystandfortwoextremes,betweenwhichthereexistintermediateformsrepresentingdifferentdegreesofbeingoldoryoung,suchas“middle-aged”,“mature”,“elderly3)Relationalantonyms（關系反義詞）(成對的；相對相輔關系的；關系對立的反義詞)（在意義上是相對稱的，它們處于相互關系的對立面，又叫換位反義詞。）Theyarepairsoflexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesdisplayareciprocal(相互的)relationship.Onememberofthepairpresupposestheother.Ifwesay“AlendsmoneytoB”,itpresupposes“BborrowsmoneyfromA”

2.Howdowordsgetmeaning?Conventionality（MostEnglishwordsareconventional,arbitrarysymbols.Thereisnoconnectionbetweenthewordformanditsmeaning.）Motivation（SomeEnglishwordsaremotivatedsymbols.Thereissomeconnectionbetweenthewordformanditsmeaning.）語用學復習要點及習題Semantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).

Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration)Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.

Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Deixismeans“pointingvialanguage”.Anylinguisticformusedtodothis“pointing”iscalledadeicticexpression.ClassificationofdeixisConstatives(敘述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;

Performatives(施為句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Locutionaryact:actofutteringwords,phrases,clauses;

Illocutionaryact:theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;

Perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfrosayingsomething,theconsequenceoftheutteranceCooperativeprinciple:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.fourmaximsundertheCooperativeprincipleThePolitenessPrincipleandthe4maximsofPP1.

Howdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaning?Asentencemeaningisof-tenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Itisabstractandindependentofcontext.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Theutterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Forexample,“Thereisadogatthedoor”.Thespeakercouldutteritasamatter-of-factstatement,tellingthehearerthatthedogisatthedoor.Thespeakercoulduseitasawarning,askingthehearernottoapproachthedoor.Thereareotherpossibilities,too.So,theunderstandingoftheutterancemeaningof“Thereisadogatthedoor”dependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.

語言的變化復習要點及習題Itisestimatedthatthereareabout5000languagesallovertheworld,whichcanbegroupedintoabout300languagefamilies,suchasSino-TibetanFamily,Indo-EuropeanFamily,AustronesianFamily,AltaicFamily,andsoon.Inthefifthcentury,theGermanicinvadersconqueredandoccupiedtheeasternpartoftheBritishisland.TheCelticlanguageoriginallyspokeninthatareawasreplacedbytheWestGermanicdialectsspokenbytheinvaders.MiddleEnglishischaracterizedbythestronginfluenceofFrenchfollowingtheNormanConquestin1066.ThankstotheRenaissance(early14thC-1650),greatnumbersofLatinandGreekwordswereaddedtoEnglish.Semanticchange

A.Wideningofmeaning

B.NarrowingofMeaning

C.MeaningshiftingCausesoflanguagechange問答題Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture1.Everylanguageispartofaculture.Peopleareidentifiedviatheiruseoflanguage.Inthissense,languageexpressesculturalreality.2.Languageembodiesculturalidentity.Itreinforcesandpreservesbeliefsandcustoms,andconditionstheirfuturecourse.Languageuseisheavilytintedwithitsculture.*Languageexpressesculturalreality.*Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.*Itislanguagethathasplayedamajorroleinsocializingthepeopleandinperpetuatingculture,especiallyinprintform.*Cultureaffectsitspeople’simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.*Languageisnotonlyintrinsicallyrelatedtowhatthecultureisandwhatitwas,butalsorelatedtothecultureofimaginationgoverningpeople’sdecisionsaswellasactions.語言分析1Myonlylovesprungfrommyonlyhate!Tooearlyseenunknown,andknowntoolate.Antonymscanbeusedasarhetoricaldevicetomaketheexpressionsmorecontrastiveandimpressive.Toachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideastogether,toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthought2.a:Let’sgetthekidssomething.b:Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.ItviolatesmannermaximofCP.Theconversationalimplicaturehereis:Idon’twantthechildrentoknowwearetalkingaboutice-cream.語言分析1.Insomelanguages,grammaticalgenderhadlittletodowiththebiologicalsex.Forexample,the“moon”inFrenchisgrammaticallyfeminine,whileinGermana“girl”isgrammaticallyneuter.Englishgendercontrastismostlyofthenaturalgenderkind,andisusuallyreflectedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns.Forexample,heformasculine,sheforfeminine,anditforneuter.2.InEnglish,thegenitivecasecanbemarkedbyinflection(’s)oraprepositionalphrase(…of..).Forexample,aboy’sshirt,Tom’spen,apictureofthegirl,amapofChina.(c.f.afriendofmymother’s;afriendofmine)3.Averbistoagreewiththesubjectinpersonandinnumber.InEnglish,thisruleonlyaffectstheverbaccordingtothenumberofthesubject.(e.g.Theboygoestoschool.Theboysgotoschool.)4.InEnglish,prepositionsandverbsrequireorrestrictparticularformsoftheparadigms(聚合體，詞形變化)ofpronounsaccordingtothesyntacticrelationbetweenthem.(e.g.Imustlearnfromthem.Theypleasedmetheotherday.)5.Englishhastwoaspectswhichcombinefairlyfreelywithtenseandmood:the“perfect”andthe“progressive”.Theyalsocombinewithoneanother.(eg.Ihave/hadreadthebook.Iwill/wouldhavereadthebook.Iam/wasreadingthebook.Iwill/wouldbereadingthebook.Ihave/hadbeenreadingthebook.)6.4-2-aTheboykickedtheball.4-2-b*Boytheballkickedthe.4-2-c*Theballkickedtheboy.Wordsin4-2-aand4-2-bviolatessyntacticrules.7.Awordmaybeanalyzedintoitsimmediateconstituents:morphemes.eg.Lovely{love}{ly}talked{talk}{ed}8.a.Theprofessor’sappointmentwasshocking.b.MaryandBillorJohnsentthegift.c.Thehorseisreadytoride.d.Oldmenandwomenarehardtolivewith.以上句中的表層結構（詞語和詞序）相同，但語義卻不同，既同一個表層結構，有兩個深層結構。9.wordmeaningismoreoftendependentontheactualsituationinwhichawordisused.Example:John’sreallyquick.Johnisarunner.Theteachertoldajoke,andthenallthestudentsbutJohnlaughed.ThenJohnlaughed.Thenoneofthestudentssays:John’sreallyquick.(quickisusedironicallytomeantheoppositeslow).10.John(agent)hitBill(patient).vs.Bill(patient)washitbyJohn(agent).InEnglish,thesesemanticrolescorrespondtothenotionsofsubjectandobject.Butthingsarecomplicatedbythenotionsofdirectandindirectobject,activeandpassivevoice.11.Johnplaygolf”----grammaticallyincorrect;?“GolfplayedJohn”----logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.12.1)A:CanIborrowyourdictionary?B:Yean,it’sonthetable.Here,worditrefersbacktotheworddictionary.Thepreviousworddictionaryiscalledtheantecedent(先行語),andthesecondworditiscalledtheanaphor（回指語）oranaphoricexpression13.Constatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish14.Performatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction.Ido.InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.15.Themaximofquality質量準則Don’tsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Don’tsaythatforwhichyoulackevidence.2)Themaximofquantity數量準則Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.Don’tmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.3)Themaximofrelevance相關/關聯準則Berelevant.4)Themaximofmanner方式準則a.Avoidobscurity/vaguenessofexpression.避免模糊b.Avoidambiguity.避免歧義c.Bebrief.簡明d.Beorderly.有序(Note:1)--3)areabout“what”,4)isabout“how”.)16.A:DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?B:Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.(違反了數量原則，提供的信息少于所須.)含義：Idon’twanttotellyou.A:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.(違反了質量原則，說了謊.)含義：Idon’treallywanttocome.A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don’tyouthink?B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?(違反了關聯原則，答非所問.)含義：Idon’twanttomakeanycommentsonthehostessinsucharudeway.17.A:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(違反了方式原則，拐彎抹角，咬文嚼字，其中必有緣故.)含義：Idon’twantthechildrentoknowwearetalkingaboutice-cream.A:WhereisBill?B:ThereisablueVWoutsideSue’shouse.違反了關聯原則。18.A:Shallwegotothecinematonight?B:Therewillbeanexamtomorrow.I’lltakeanexamtomorrow.Isn’tthereanexamtomorrow?ButconversationalimplicaturesrelatedtotheMannermaximsareexceptionstothischaracteristic:A:Let’sgetthekidssomethingB:IvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.Butdon’tgivethemicecreams.19.EgA:We’llallmissBillandRose,won’twe?B:Well,we’llallmissBill.根據CP,B說話人違反了量的原則，只說Bill,不提Rose.但他這樣做顯然是有意的。由于某種原因他可能對Rose心懷不滿，但礙于情面，不便直說，促使他違反CP,很明顯，PP在起著作用。A:Someonehaseatentheicingofthecake!B:Itwasn’tme!這一例中，B通過違反關系原則，暗示Itwassomeoneelse.至于是誰，他卻不愿說出來。20.A:Thetelephoneisringing.Canyouanswerit?B:I’minthebathroom.A:Tomhasjustborrowedyourcar.B:Well,IlikeThat!（以示不滿）A:Bobisreallymischievous,isn’the?B:Childrenarechildren.很明顯，以上幾例都說明PP在某些情況下起到補充甚至挽救CP的作用。Sociolinguisticsstudiesallaspects