JohnLocke

Life

JohnLockewasbornatWrington,avil1ageinSomerset,onAugust29,163

2.Hewasthesonofacountrysolicitorandsmal1landownerwho,

whenthecivi1warbrokeout,servedasacaptainofhorseintheparl

iamentaryarmy."\nosoonerperceivedmyse1fintheworidthanI

foundmyselfinastorm,whewrotelongafterwards,duringtheIu1I

inthestormwhichfoliowedtheking'sreturn.Butpoliticalunre

stdoesnotseemtohaveseriouslydisturbedthecourseofhiseducat

ion.HeenteredWestminsterschoolin1646,andpassedtoChristC

hurch,0xford,asajuniorstudent,in1652;andhehadahomethere

(thoughabsentfromitforIongperiods)formorethanthirtyyears—till

deprivedofhisstudentshipbyroyaImandatein1684.Theoff

icialstudiesoftheuniversitywereuncongenialtohim;hewouIdhaveprefer

redtohaveIearnedphilosophyfromDescartesinsteadoffromAri

stotIe；butevidentlyhesatisfiedtheauthorities,forhewaselectedto

aseniorstudentshipin1659,and,inthethreeorfouryearsf

oilowing,hetookpartinthetutoria1workofthecoHege.Atonetimehe

seemstohavethoughtoftheclericaIprofessionasapossiblecareer;

buthedeciinedanofferofprefermentin1666,andinthesameyear

obtainedadispensationwhichenabledhimtoholdhisstudentship

withouttakingorders.Aboutthesametimewehearofhisinterestin

experimenta1science,andhewaselectedafellowoftheRoyaISoci

etyin1668.Litt1eisknownofhisearlymedicalstudies.Hecannothav

efo11owedtheregularcourse,forhewasunab1etoobtainthe

degreeofdoctorofmedicine.Itwasnottill1674thathegraduatedasba

chelorofmedicine.InthefoilowingJanuaryhispositioninChristChurch

wasregularizedbyhisappointmenttooneofthetwomedica1

studentshipsofthecollege.

Hisknowledgeofmedicineandoccasiona1practiceoftheart

1ed,in1666,toanacquaintancewithLordAshIey(afterwards,fr

om1672,EarlofShaftesbury).Theacquaintance,begunaccidental1y,had

animmediateeffectonLocke'scareer.Withoutservinghisconnectio

nwithOxford,hebecameamemberofShaftesbury*shouseholdzandseems

soontohavebeenIookeduponasindispensabIeinal1mattersdomestican

dpolitica1.Hesavedthestatesmanzs1ifebyaskiIIfuIoperation,ar

rangedasuitabIemarriageforhisheir,attendedtheladyinherc

onfinement,anddirectedthenursingandeducationofherson—a

fterwardsfamousastheauthorofCharacteristies.HeassistedShaf

tesburyalsoinpublicbusiness,commercialandpolitical,andfollowed

himintothegovernmentservice.WhenShaftesburywasmadelordc

hance1Iorin1672,Lockebecamehissecretaryforpresentationstobe

nefices,and,inthefo1lowingyear,wasmadesecretarytotheboardof

trade.In1675hisofficiallifecametoanendforthetimewitht

hefa11ofhischief.

Locke'shealth,a1waysdelicate,sufferedfromtheLondonclimate.When

releasedfromthecaresofoffice,heIeftEnglandinsearchofhea1th.

Tenyearsear1ierhehadhisfirstexperienceofforeigntrave1and

ofpublicempIoyment,assecretarytoSirWa1terVane,ambassad

ortotheElectorofBrandenburgduringthefirstDutchwar.OnhisreturntoEn

g1and,earlyin1666,hedeciinedanofferoffurtherservicein

Spain,andsett1edagaininOxford,butwassooninducedbyShaf

tesburytospendagreatpartofhistimeinLondon.0nhisreIeasefrom

officein1675hesoughtmi1derairinthesouthofFrance,made

Ieisure1yjourneys,andsettleddownformanymonthsatMontpellie

r.Thejournalwhichhekeptatthisperiodisfullofminutedescr

iptionsofplacesandcustomsandinstitutions.Itcontainsalsoa

recordofmanyoftheref1ectionsthatafterwardstookshapeintheEs

sayconcerningHumanUnderstanding.hereturnedtoEnglandin167

9,whenhispatronhadagainashortspel1ofoffice.Hedoesnot

seemtohavebeenconcernedinShaftesbury'slaterschemes；but

suspicionnaturallyfelluponhim,andhefounditprudenttotake

refugeinHol1and.ThishedidinAugust1683,1essthanayearaftert

heflightanddeathofShaftesbury.EveninHo1landforsometime

hewasnotsafefromdangerofarrestattheinstanceoftheEnglish

government；hemovedfromtowntotown,livedunderanassumedname,

andvisitedhisfriendsbystealth.HisresidenceinHo1landbroughtpolitical

occupationswithit,amongthemenwhowerepreparingtheEnglishrevo

1ution.ithadatleastequalvalueintheIeisurewhichitgavehimfor

literaryworkandinthefriendshipswhichitoffered.Inparticular,heformed

acloseintimacywithPhilipvanLimbroch,theIeaderoftheRemonstra

ntclergy,andthescho1arand1iberaltheologiantowhomEpistolad

eTolerantiawasdedicated.Thisletterwascompletedin1685,thoughnot

publishedatthetime;and,beforeheleftforEngland,inFebruary1689z

theEssayconcerningHumanUnderstandingseemstohaveattainedits

fina1form,andanabstractofitwaspublishedinLeclere'sBibi

iothequeuniversellein1688.

Thenewgovernmentrecognizedhisservicestothecauseoffreedomby

theofferofthepostofambassadoreitheratBerlinoratVienna.ButLoc

kewasnoplacehunter;hewassolicitousa1soonaccountofhishea

Ith；hisearlierexperienceofGermanyIedhimtofearthe”co1dair"and"w

armdrinkingw；andthehighofficewasdeclined.Butheservedless

importantofficesathome.HewasmadecommissionerofappealsinMay

1689,and,from1696to1700,hewasacommissioneroftradeandplant

ationsatasalaryofL1000ayear.Althoughofficialdutiesca1Iedhim

totownforprotractedperiods,hewasabletofixhisresidence

inthecountry.In1691hewaspersuadedtomakehispermanenthomeat

OatesinEssex,inthehouseofFrancisandLadyMasham.LadyMasham

wasadaughterofCudworth,theCambridgeP1atonist;Lockhadmanifeste

dagrowingsympathywithhistypeoflibera1theoIogy;intel1ectual

affinityincreasedhisfriendshipwiththefamilyatOates;andhe

continuedto1ivewiththemti1IhisdeathonOctober28,1704.

2.Writings

WiththeexceptionoftheabstractoftheEssayandotherlessimportant

contributionstotheBibliothequeuniverselie,Lockehadnotpublis

hedanythingbeforehisreturntoEnglandin1689;andbythistimehewasinh

isfifty-seventhyear.ButmanyyearsofrefIectionandpreparationm

adehimreadyatthattimetopublishbooksinrapidsuccession.InM

arch1689hisEpistoladeTo1erantiawaspublishedinHoI1and;anEn

glishtranslationofthesame,byWiHiamPopp1e,appearedlaterint

hesameyear,andinacorrectededitionin1690.Thecontroversywhichfoil

owedthisworkled,onLocke'spart,tothepublicationofaSecondLet

ter(1690),andthenaThirdLetter(1692).InFebruary1690thebooke

ntitledTwoTreatisesofGovernmentwaspublished,andinMarchofthe

sameyearappearedthelongexpectedEssayconcerningHuman

Understanding,onwhichhehadbeenatworkintermittentlysinee167

1.itmetwithimmediatesaccess,andIedtoavoluminousliterature

ofattackandreply;youngfellowsofcollegestriedtointroduceitatth

euniversities,andheadsofhousessatinconclavetodevisemeansf

oritssuppression.TooneofhiscriticsLockerepliedatlengt

h.ThiswasEdwardSti1lingfleet,bishopofWorcester,who,inh

isVindicationoftheDoctrineoftheTrinity(1696)zhadattackedthenewp

hilosophy.ItwasthetheologicaIconsequenceswhichweredrawnfrom

thedoctrinesoftheEssay,notsomuchbyLockehimselfasbyToland,inhi

sChristianitynotMysterious,thatthebishophadchief1yinview;

inphi1osophyforitsownsakehedoesnotseemtohavebeeninter

ested.Buthiscriticismdrewattentiontooneoftheleastsatisfact

ory(ifalsooneofthemostsuggestive)doctrinesoftheEssay—itse

xplanationoftheideaofsubstance;anddiscreditwasthrownonthe

“newwayofideas“ingeneral.InJanuary1697LockerepliedinALetter

totheBishopofWorcester.StillingfleetansweredthisinMay;andLoc

kewasreadywithasecond1etterinAugust.Stillingfleetrepliedin169

8,andLocke's1engthythird1etterappearedin1699.Thebishop's

death,laterinthesameyear,putanendtothecontroversy.Thesecond

editionoftheEssaywaspublishedin1694,thethirdin1695,andthefourth

in1700.Thesecondandfourtheditionscontainedimportantadditions.

Anabridgementofitappearedin1696,byJohnWynne,fellowof

JesusCollege,Oxford；itwastranslatedintoLatinandintoFrenchsoon

aftertheappearaneeofthefourthedition.The1atereditionscontai

nmanymodificationsduetotheauthor'scorrespondencewithWilliamM

olyneux,ofTrinityColiege,Dub1inzadevoteddisciple,forwhomLocke

hadawormfriendship.OthercorrespondentsandvisitorstoOates

duringtheseyearswereIsaacNewtonandAnthonyCollins,ayoung

squireoftheneighborhood,whoafterwardsmadehismarkintheinte

llectua1controversiesofthetime.

OtherinterestsaIsooccupiedLockeduringtheyearsfo1Iowingthe

publicationofhisgreatwork.ThefinancialdifficuItiesofthenewgov

ernmentIedin1691tohispublicationofSomeConsiderations

oftheConsequencesofLoweringofInterest,andRaisingtheValueof

Money,andofFurtherConsiderationsontheIatterquestion,

fouryearslater.In1693hepublishedSomeThoughtsconcerningEduca

tion,aworkfoundedon1etterswrittentoafriend,andin1695

appearedTheReasonablenessofChristianity,andlaterAVjndicat

ionofthesameagainstcertainobjections;andthiswasfollowedby

asecondvindicationtwoyearsafterwards.Locke/sreligiousinterest

hadaIwaysbeenstronglymarked,and,inhelateryearsofhis

life,muchofhistiewasgiventotheology.Amongthewritingsofhiswh

ichwerepublishedafterhisdeatharecommentariesonthePauli

neepist1es,andaDiscourseonMiracles,aswellasafra

gmentofaFourthLetterforToleration.Theposthumouslypublished

writingsincludefurtherAnExaminationofFatherMalebranche'sOpinionof

SeeingallthingsinGod,RemarksonSomeofMrNorris'sBooks,and—

mostimportantofall-thesma1ItreatiseonTheConductoftheUnderstandin

gwhichhadbeenoriginallydesignedasachapteroftheEssay.

TwoTreatisesofGovernment

InTwoTreatisesofGovernmenthehastwopurposesinview:torefutethe

doctrineofthedivineandabsoluterightoftheMonarch,asithadbeen

putforwardbyRobertFilmer'sPatriarcha,andtoestab1ishatheorywhic

hwouldreconcilethelibertyofthecitizenwithpoliticalorder.Thecriticis

mofFilmerinthefirstTreatiseiscomplete.Histheoryofthea

bsolutesovereigntyofAdam,andsoofkingsasAdam'sheirs,haslosta1I

interest;andLockezsargumenthasbeenonlytooeffective:hisex

haustivereplytosoabsurdathesisbecomesitselfwearisome.Al

thoughthereislittIedirectreferencetoHobbes,Lockeseemsto

havehadHobbesinmindwhenhearguedthatthedoctrineofabsolute

monarchyleavessovereignandsubjectsinthestateofnature

towardsoneanother.Theconstructivedoctrineswhichareelaboratedin

thesecondtreatisebecamethebasisofsocialandpo1iticalphi1osophyforg

enerations.Laboristheoriginandjustificationofproperty;contract

orconsentisthegroundofgovernmentandfixesits1imits.Behind

bothdoctrines1iestheideaoftheindependenceoftheindividua1p

erson.Thestateofnatureknowsnogovernment;butinit,as

inpoliticalsociety,menaresubjecttothemoralIaw,whichisthe1

awofGod.MenarebornfreeandequaIinrights.Whateveramanz/mixe

shislabourwith“ishistouse.0r,atleast,thiswassointheprimiti

veconditionofhumanlifeinwhichtherewasenoughforallan

d“thewholeearthwasAmerica?"Lockeseesthat,whenmenhave

multipliedandlandhasbecomescarce,rulesareneededbeyondt

hosewhichthemoralIaworIawofnaturesupplies.Buttheoriginof

governmentistracednottothiseconomicnecessity,buttoanotherca

use.ThemoralIawisalwaysva1id,butitisnotaIwayskept.Inthesta

teofnatureal1menequallyhavetherighttopunishtransgressors:civil

societyoriginateswhen,forthebetteradministrationofthelaw,mena

greetode1egatethisfunctiontocertainofficers.Thusgovernment

isinstitutedbya“socia1contractitspowersarelimited,andtheyin

volvereciproca1ob1igations；moreover,theycanbemodjfiedorre

scindedbytheauthoritywhichconferredthem.Locke'stheor

yisthusnomorehistoricalthanHobbes's.Itisarenderingofthefa

ctsofconstitutionalgoveminentintermsofthought,anditserved

itspurposeasajustificationoftheRevolutionsettlementinacc

ordancewiththeideasofthetime.

LettersonReligiousToleration

Locke'sp1eaforto1erationinmattersofbe1iefhasbecomec

lassicaI.HisCommon-PlaceBookshowsthathismindwasc1earonthe

subjectmorethantwentyyearsbeforethepub1icationofhisfir

stLetter.Thetopic,indeed,wasintheaira11throughhislife,anda

ffectedhimnear1y.WhenhewasascholaratWestminster,the

powersofthecivilmagistrateinreligiousma11erswerethe

subjectofheateddiscussionbetweenPresbyteriansandindependentsint

heassemblyofdivinesthathelditssessionswithinastone's

throwofhisdormitory;and,whenheenteredChristChurch,JohnOwen,

aIeaderoftheindependents,hadbeenrecentlyappointedtothedeane

ry.Therehadbeenmanyargumentsforto1erationbeforethistime,

buttheyhadcomefromtheweakerpartyinthestate.ThusJeremyTay1o

r'sLibertyofProphesyingappearedin1646,whenthefortunes

ofhissidehadsufferedadecline.ForOwenthecredithasbeenclaimed

thathewasthefirstwhoarguedfortoleration“whenhispartywas

uppermostHewasca11edupontopreachbeforetheHouseofCo

mmonsonJanuary31,1649,andperformedthetaskwithoutmakinganyre

ferencetothetragiceventofthepreviousday;buttothepublis

hedsermonheappendedaremarkablediscussionontderation.

OwendidnottakesuchhighgroundasMiItondid,tenyears1ater,inhi

sTreatiseofCivi1PowerinEcclesiasticaICauses—affirmi

ngthat“itisnot1awfuIforanypoweronearthtocompelinmattersof

religionZ*Heaboundsindistinctions,andindeedhispositioncallsfor

somesubt1ety.Heholdsthatthecivi1magistratehasdutiestothe

church,andthatheoughttogivefacilitiesandprotectiontoits

ministers,notmerelyascitizensbutaspreachersof“thetruth”;ont

heotherhandhearguesthatcivi1orcorporealpenaltiesareinappropriat

easpunishmentsforoffenceswhicharepurelyspiritua1.

ThepositionultimatelyadoptedbyLockeisnota1togetherthesame

asthis.Hewasneveranardentpuritan；hehadaslitt1etastefor

elaboratetheo1ogiesashehadforscholasticsystemsofphilosophy;

andhisear1iestattemptatatheoryoftolerationwasconnectedwiththe

viewthatinreligion,〃artidesinspeculativeopinions[should]befewand

large,andceremoniesinworshipfewandeasy."Thedoctrineswhichheheld

tobenecessaryforsalvationwouIdhaveseemedtoJohnOwenamea

gerandpitifulcreed.Andhehadanarrowerviewalsoofthefunct

ionsofthestate."Thebusinessoflawshesays,

isnottoprovideforthetruthofopinions,butforthesafetyandsecurityo

fthecommonwealth,andofeveryparticularman'sgoodsandperson.

Andso