1Cross-culturalcommunication

1Cross-culturalcommunication2CulturalShockorAcculturation5Historicaldevelopment2AspectsofInterculturalcommunication

3Cross-culturalCommunicativecompetence4Basicconcepts1ContentsCases6Cross-culturalcommunication2CulturalShockorAcculturati3BasicconceptsWhatisculture?Whatiscommunication?WhatisCross-culturalcommunication?3BasicconceptsWhatisculture4WhatisCommunication?ItcomesfromtheLatinword“communicare”,itmeanstogiveortoexchange.Now,themostcommonmeaningof“communication”istogiveorexchangeinformationorideas.Communicationisourabilitytoshareourideasandfeelings.(thebasisofallhumancontact)Communicationisadynamic,systematicprocessinwhichmeaningsarecreatedandreflectedinhumaninteractionwithsymbols.(Griffin,2006:54)4WhatisCommunication?Itcome5交際傳理交通通信傳播溝通交流CommunicationVariousChineseTranslationsofCommunicationCommunication5交際傳理交通通信傳播溝通交流CommunicationVa6TypesofCommunicationhumancommunication(人類交際）animalcommunication(動物交際）human-animalcommunication（人類與動物的交際）human-machinecommunication（人機交際）machine-to-machinecommunication（機器交際）6TypesofCommunicationhumanc7LinearModelofCommunicationSenderReceiverChannel(message)encodingdecodingnoiseIsthisaneffectivemodelofcommunication?ModeofCommunication7LinearModelofCommunication8InteractiveModelofCommunicationSenderReceiverSenderReceiverencodingdecodingnoiseFeedbackisessentialtogoodcommunicationdecodingencodingmessage/channelmessage/channel8InteractiveModelofCommunic9ElementsofcommunicationContext(location,time,light,temperature,seatingarrangements)Participants(relationship,gender,culture)Messages(meanings,symbols,encodinganddecoding)Channels(sound,sight,smell,taste,touch)Noise(externalnoise,internalnoise,semanticnoise)Feedback(Griffin,2006:94)9ElementsofcommunicationCont10Characteristicsofcommunication1)Communicationisdynamic2)Communicationisinteractive3)Communicationisirreversible4)Communicationtakesplaceinbothaphysicalandsocialcontext.(Griffin,2006)10Characteristicsofcommunica11WhatisCross-culturalCommunication?

Cross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionsandsymbolsystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.Cross-culturalcommunicationreferstoanycommunicationbetweentwomembersofanyculturalcommunities.(SamovarandPorter,2004:47)11WhatisCross-culturalCommu12Cross-culturalCommunication

Vs

InterculturalCommunication

Cross-culturalcommunicationthesimilaritiesanddifferencesinvalueorientations,affectivedispositions,communicativestylesetc.(psychologicalprocess)Interculturalcommunicationthepenetrationbyamemberofonecultureintoanotherculture(practicalsignificance)InChinese:“跨文化交際學”或“跨文化交流學”12Cross-culturalCommunication13HistoricaldevelopmentTheestablishmentoftheForeignServiceInstitute(1940s-50s);ThebodyofworkbyanthropologistEdwardT.Hall(1950s);Thelaunchingofcross-culturalorganizations(1970s-80s);Theincreaseofcross-culturalcourseworkincollegesanduniversities(1970s-80s);Thegrowthofabodyofworkincross-culturalcommunicationtheoryandresearch(1980s-present)(Dijk,1998:145)13HistoricaldevelopmentThees14InterdisciplinaryorientationThesefieldsinclude:anthropologyculturalstudiespsychologycommunication

14Interdisciplinaryorientatio15ClassicalWorksintheFieldIn1940,FranzBoas,Race,LanguageandCulture.In1957,firstly“Crossculturalstudies”byRobertLadoinhisLinguisticAcrossCultures(《跨文化語言學》）.Hediscussedtheculturalcomparisoninthreeaspects:form,meaninganddistribution(顧嘉祖，4）.In1959,the

SilentLanguagebyEdwardT.Hallinitiatedthecross-culturalstudies.R.Oliver,1962，CultureandcommunicationA.G.Smith,1966,CultureandcommunicationIn1970s,ICA(InternationalCommunicationAssociation)acceptedCross-culturalCommunicationasabranchdiscipline.asadiscipline)Journals:InternationalandInterculturalJournalofInterculturalRelations.

15ClassicalWorksintheFiel16AMonumentalFigureEdwardTwitchellHall,(1914–2009),Americananthropologistandcross-culturalresearcher.Hallintroducedanumberofnewconcepts,includingproxemics,polychronicandmonochronictime,andhighandlowcontextcultures.TheSilentLanguage(1959)TheHiddenDimension(1966)BeyondCulture(1976)16AMonumentalFigureEdwardTw17Proxemics(人際距離學）Itreferstoadescriptionofhowpeoplebehaveandreactindifferenttypesofculturally-definedpersonalspace.Fourcategoriesofdistanceinclude:Friendsandrelativessocialdistancepublicdistance17Proxemics(人際距離學）Itreferst18Timesystems(Hall,1976)MonochronicTime(M-Time)PolychronicTime(P-Time)

美國人類學家霍爾（EdwardHall）在（BeyondCulture）一書中首次區(qū)分了兩種不同的時間觀念,即“單向計時制”（monochronictime）和“多向計時制”（polychronictime)18Timesystems(Hall,1976)Mon19MonochronicTime(M-Time)

Itschedulesoneeventatatime.Intheseculturestimeisperceivedasalinearstructurejustlikearibbonstretchingfromthepastintothefuture.

e.g.American

“單向計時制重視日程安排、階段時間和準時”,

認為“時間是線性的、可分割的，就象一條道路或帶子向前伸展到未來，向后延伸到過去”。美國人特別強調(diào)把時間分割成不同的時段來安排活動,強調(diào)守時,嚴格按照日程一次做一件事情（doonethingatatime）19MonochronicTime(M-Time)20PolychronicTime(P-Time)

P-timeschedulesseveralactivitiesatthesametime.Itismoreflexibleandmorehumanistic.PeoplefromP-timesystememphasizetheinvolvementofpeoplemorethanschedules.Theydonotseeappointmentsasironcladcommitmentsandsometimesbreakthem(Hall,1976:73).

e.g.Chinese,LatinAmerican,ArabandmostAsiancultures20PolychronicTime(P-Time)21AspectsofCross-culturalCommunicationHighandLowContextCulturesVerbandNonVerbalCommunication

21AspectsofCross-culturalCo22HighandLowcontextculturesTheideaofcontextinculturewasanideaputforthbyananthropologistbythenameofEdwardTHall.Hallbrokeupcultureintotwomaingroups:HighandLowcontextcultures.Hereferredtocontextasthestimuli,environmentorambiancesurroundingtheenvironment.22HighandLowcontextculture23High-contextCulture:Inhigh-contextmessages,meaningisnotnecessarilycontainedinwords.Informationisprovidedthroughgestures,theuseofspace,andevensilence.Meaningisalsoconveyedthroughstatus(age,sex,education,familybackground,title,andaffiliation)(Hall,1959:97).High-Contextculturesassumetheindividualisknowledgeableaboutthesubjectandhastobegivenverylittlebackgroundinformation.High-contextculturesincludeChinese,Japanese,MiddleEasterners,etc.23High-contextCulture:Inhigh24Low-contextCulture:Inlow-contextmessages,themajorityoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode.low-contextculturesassumethattheindividualsknowverylittleaboutwhattheyarebeingtold,andthereforemustbegivenalotofbackgroundinformation.Low-contextculturesincludeEnglish,NorthAmerican,German,etc.24Low-contextCulture:Inlow-c25

verbalnon-verballanguageothersbodylanguageothersspeakingwritingsoundspokenlanguagewrittenlanguageinformalformalparalinguisticssignlanguagegesturesflag,codeshumancommunicationDiagramofhumancommunication25verbalnon-verballang26VerbalCommunicationParalanguage(伴隨語言):referstovoicecharacteristicsandvocalqualities.Paralinguisticsisthestudyofsuchaspectsofspeechastone,volume,pitchandtempo,pauseandthelikewhicharetogetherwithverbalinformation.Ourvoicemaybeoneofthemostinformativeelementsinbuildingupourimages.26VerbalCommunicationParalang27(1)Pitch

Pitchdecideshesitationoremphasis.Whenoneisexcited,his/hervoicewouldbehighinpitch,quickinrate,andtherewillbenopausesbetweensentences;Whenoneissadordepressed,his/hervoicetraitswouldsurelybetheopposite.27(1)PitchPitchdecides28(2)VolumeControl

TheEnglishalwaysspeakinlowervoicethanChinesewhentheymakespeechoralecture,ortalkingwitheachother,orphoning.ButChineseoftenspeakinloudvoiceintheaforesaidoccasions.

Americanaremoreskilledinregulatingtheirvoicevolumeanduseverymanydifferentvolumelevelsdependingonthesizeoftheaudienceandthephysicalenvironment.28(2)VolumeControlThe29(3)Silence

Silencecanbelongerbetweenfriendsorintimatesthanthestrangerswhohavetoconverse.Chinesepaymoreattentiontothefunctionofsilenceinthetalking,andthinkthatthepausesandsilencehaverichmeanings.Silencemayhavemanypossiblemeanings:agreement--disagreement,thoughtful--ignorance,consideration--inconsideration,secrecy,coldness,submission,boredomandsoon.29(3)SilenceSilencecan30NonverbalCommunicationNonverbalcodesrefertocommunicativemessageswhicharenotinwordform.Morethan55%messagesarecommunicatednonverbally!30NonverbalCommunicationNonve31DefinitionNonverbalcommunicationinvolvesallnonverbalstimuliinacommunicationsettingthatisgeneratedbyboththesourceandhisorheruseoftheenvironmentandthathaspotentialmessagevalueforthesourceorreceiver.(SamovarandPorter,2004)31DefinitionNonverbalcommunic32Wherearetheyfrom?muumuujeans32Wherearetheyfrom?muumuuje33KimonoSari(Saree)33KimonoSari(Saree)34GeneralAppearanceandDressConcernwithhowoneappearsisuniversal.Wemakeinferences(oftenfaulty)aboutanother’s“intelligence,gender,age,approachability,financialwell-being,class,tastes,values,andculturalbackground”

fromattractiveness,dress,andpersonalappearance.34GeneralAppearanceandDress35BodyLanguageBodylanguagereferstoallnonverbalcodeswhichareassociatedwithbodymovements.Bodylanguageincludesgestures,headmovements,facialexpressions,eyebehaviors,posturesandotherdisplaysthatcanbeusedtocommunicate.35BodyLanguageBodylanguager36GesturesGesturesareanimportantcomponentofnon-verbalcommunication.Itmustbeemphasizedthatgesturesvaryinmeaningfromculturetoculture.Non-verbalCommunication

36GesturesNon-verbalCommunica371.theringgesture:InAmerica,itmeansOK.It’sgreat.InJapanitmeansmoney;InFranceitmeanszeroorworthless;InTunisia突尼斯“I’llkillyou.”37382.thesinglefingerbeckon:InAmericaitsimplymeans:comehere.InYugoslaviaandMalaysiaitisonlyusedforbeckoninganimals.InIndonesiaandAustraliaitisusedforbeckoningprostitutes.38393.Thethumbs-upsign:InBritainitmeansOKandisalsousedasasignforhitch-hiking.InGreeceitisaninsult.InChineseitmeansOKorpraising.3940Cross-culturalCommunicativeCompetenceIntegrationofcommunicativecompetenceandculturalcompetence.40Cross-culturalCommunicative41CommunicativeCompetence

GrammaticalCompetence masteringthelinguisticcodeofalanguage(sentencelevel)

DiscourseCompetence formingameaningfulwholeoutofaseriesofutterances.(inter-sententialrelationships)41CommunicativeCompetenceGra42SociolinguisticCompetence knowledgeofthesocio-culturalrules(appropriatenessofutterances)StrategicCompetence verbalandnonverbalcommunicationstrategiesthatmaybecalledintoactiontocompensateforbreakdownsincommunicationduetoinsufficientcompetence.42SociolinguisticCompetence43CulturalCompetenceAwarenessofone'sownculturalworldview;Attitudetowardsculturaldifferences;Knowledgeofdifferentculturalpracticesandworldviews;cross-culturalskills.

43CulturalCompetenceAwareness44 Ethnocentrism StereotypingPrejudiceDiscrimination Racism LackofKnowledge,Motivation, &SkillObstaclestoCross-culturalCompetenceWithinPeople

44 EthnocentrismObstaclest45

EthnocentrismItisthetendencytousethecategoriesofone’sownculturetoevaluatetheactionsofothers,orthebeliefthatone’scultureisprimarytoallexplanationsofreality.Ifpeoplebelievethattheirculturalistheonlytrueculture,theywilldiscriminateagainstpeoplewhomanifestculturalnormsthatfailtocorrespondtotheirvaluesandbehaviors.45 EthnocentrismItisthetend46 StereotypingStereotypesareaformofgeneralizationaboutsomegroupofpeople,orameansoforganizingimagesintofixedandsimplecategoriesthatareusedtostandfortheentirecollectionofpeople.

Itisfoundinnearlyevery

interculturalsituation.Thereasonforthepervasivenatureofstereotypesisthathumanbeingshaveapsychologicalneedtocategorizeandclassify.46 StereotypingStereotypesare47

Theyarebarrierstointerculturalcommunication.Stereotypesfailtospecifyindividualcharacteristics.Theyassumethatallmembersofagrouphaveexactlythesametraits.

Theyareoversimplified,overgeneralized,and/orexaggerated.Theyarebasedonhalf-truths,distortions,andoftenuntruepremises;butoftentakenas“truth”.47Theyarebarrierstointerc48Inthepast:AmericanstereotypeonJapanese:

FujiMountain,Sakura,GeishaJapanesestereotypeonAmericans:

chewinggum

Atpresent:AmericanstereotypeonJapanese:

Economichole,workaholicJapanesestereotypeonAmericans:

thewhiteforeignersspeakingEnglish48Inthepast:49

PrejudiceItreferstonegativeattitudestowardsotherpeoplethatarebasedonfaultyandinflexiblestereotypes.Itisanunfair,biased,orintolerantattitudetowardsanothergroupofpeople.“ThoseGermansdiditonce,soIcannevertrustanyofthemeveragain.”

“Don’tpaytheMexicansverymuch.Theydon’thaveanyeducationandwillworkforalmostnothing.”49 PrejudiceItreferstonegat50 DiscriminationItreferstothebehavioralmanifestationsoftheprejudice,itcanbethoughtofasprejudice“inaction”.

Racism50 DiscriminationItrefersto51 LackofKnowledge,Motivation&SkillToovercomeallthepreviousobstacles,itrequiresacommitmentbothtolearningaboutotherculturesandtounderstandone’sown.Awillingnesstoexplorevariousculturalexperienceswithoutprejudgmentisnecessary.Anabilitytobehaveappropriatelyandeffectivelywithculturallydifferentotherswithoutinvokingprejudiceandstereotypedassumptions.51 LackofKnowledge,Motivati52FormofAddressGreetingInitiatingConversationandConversationTopicVisitingPartingCulturalshockorAcculturationwheneastmeetswest52FormofAddressCulturalshoc53IndividualisticandCollectivistCulture

IndividualisticCulture

(liberalism):individualstendtodefinethemselvesbytheextenttowhichtheyaredifferentfrom,ratherthansimilartoother.Peopleareencouragedtodisplayself-confidenceandassertiveness,disclosureofpersonalthoughtsandfeelings.

Collectivistculture(Confucianism):placeslittlevalueonindividualidentityandgreatvalueongroupidentity.Goingone'sownwayisnotvalued;uniformityandconformityarestressed.53IndividualisticandCollecti54AcaseinpointAuthorialidentityinacademicwritingIndividualisticVS.CollectivisticVisibleinvisibletheuseofI,Weetc.54Acaseinpoint55IndividualismCollectivismIcultureWEcultureopendiscussionofdisagreementarevaluedformsoftalkopenlyspeakingone’smindappearsdistastefulseekthenoticeofothers;affirmtheiruniquenessopenexpressionrisksfaceguardingprivacy;valuingfreedomtodoandthinkwhatevertheychoosetherighttoprivacyinthesenseoffreedomisnotrecognizedlivelifeguidedonlybyprinciplessuchasequalityandnoninterferenceone’sbusinessisalsothebusinessofthegroup;friendsshouldbeconcernedwitheachother’spersonalmatters55IndividualismCollectivismIc56ChineseEnglishFormalRelationship/SituationNeutralRelationship/SituationCloseRelationship/SituationFormofAddressSurname+TitleTitle+SurnameSurname+TitleTitle+SurnameGivenNameGivenNameGivenName56ChineseEnglishFormalRelatio57FocusTheuseofperson’stitle:InChina:Surname+Title:張局長,李經(jīng)理,嚴校長…InAmerica:onlyafewoccupationsortitles:Doctor,ProfessorNurse,Judge,Mayor,Theranksinthearmedforce:CaptainUsage:Singly/+surname57FocusTheuseofperson’stit58informalsituationEnglandpeoplecalleachotherbyfirstnameemployersemployeesinlessformalsettingsPeopleusuallyusefirstname,eventheymeetforthefirsttime,regardlessofageandstatusinformalsituationfirstnamesarelesslikelytobeusedinmanyofficesuseofthefirstnameamongcolleaguesiscustomary;usethetitlepluslastnamewouldbetakenasanopendeclarationofdislikesomeone.themostfrequentusedtitlesMr./Mrs./Miss./Ms.generaltermsofaddressSir/Madam/Mack/Buddy/matecollectiveinformaltermsguystermsofendearmenthusband&wife/dear/darling/love58informalsituationEnglandp59NotesonEnglishTitlesIninformalsituations,peopleusuallycalleachotherbytheirfirstnames.Mutualuseoffirstnamesdoesnotineverysituationimplyfriendshipandintimacy.

Useoftitlepluslastnameinaninformalcircumstanceisstillavoided.Itwouldbetakenasbeingtoocold,anopendeclarationofdislike.Childrenoftenaddressschoolmistressessimplyas'Miss'withoutaddingtheirsurnames."Sir"and"Madam"withoutaddingtheirsurnamesareusuallyaddressedbypeoplelikeshop-assistantsorair-hostesses.When"Sir"isusedbeforealifepeerinBritain,itisofcourseatitleoflords.Thewordcanbeusedbeforeaperson'swholenamelike"SirBeatlePaulMcCartney"orjustwiththefirstnamealonelike"SirPaul".InEnglishprofessionaltitles,themostcommonlyusedthreeareDoctor(博士),ProfessorandDoctor(醫(yī)生)thatcangotogetherwithaperson'sname.Othertitlesthatcanbeusedtogetherwithaperson'snameareQueen(QueenMary瑪麗女王），Prince(PrinceCharles),President(PresidentClinton),Senator(SenatorFulbright議員）,Judge(JudgeHarley法官）,Father(FatherWhite神父),General(GeneralPatten),Colone(ColonelQuail上校)andsoon.59NotesonEnglishTitlesInin60FocusFamily,relativesorcloseneighbors:InChina:二哥,三姐,四嬸,王大伯InAmerica:GivennamesExceptions:Parentsgrandparentsolderrelatives60FocusFamily,relativesorcl61Thepropertopicstostartconversations:InitiatingConversationandConversationTopicHobbiesAlocalornationaleventHolidaysJobsTheweatherFilms/books61Thepropertopicstostartc62SometopicsthatChineseshouldbecarefulaboutdiscussing:AgeMoneyHealth62SometopicsthatChinesesho63Suchquestionsaboutmoneyshouldbeavoided:Howmuchdoyouearn?Howmuchisthedress/mobilephone?Theissuecanonlybeapproachedindirectly:XiaoHe:That’sabeautifulplantstand!Wheredidyoubuyit?Jennifer:AttheplantshoponSimingRoad.XiaoHe:Oh,I’dlovetobuyonemyself.Wasitveryexpensive?Jennifer:Notreally.Infact,Ithoughtitwasquitereasonable.Ipaidfiveyuanforit.63Suchquestionsaboutmoneys64BusinessrelatedVisitingcharacteristicsarrangedinadvancestraighttothepointsociallyrelatedcharacteristicsdependingonindividualpreference,butusuallywithanadvancenotice64BusinessrelatedVisitingchar65GiftsDifferentwaysofreceivinggiftsChineseWesternersTendtoopenthegiftsafterthevisitorshaveleft.Ifyouopenthegiftassoonasitisgiven,youmightembarrassthepersonwhogivesyouthegiftandyoumightbethoughtgreedy.Itisregardedaspolitetoopengiftsassoonastheyaregiventoexpressappreciation.Itisimpolitetojustsaythankyouandputthegiftawayinacorner.DifferentwaysofsendinggiftsManypeoplesendgiftswithoutwrappingthem,andiftheywrapthem,theyusuallytellthereceiverwhatisinside.Peopleusuallywrapthegiftsanddonottellthereceiverwhatisinside.Expensivegiftsarewelcome.Expensivegiftsarenotappropriate.Fruitisacommononetobringwithwhenvisitingafamily.Giftsorfruitarethoughtofasonlyappropriateofvisitstothepeoplewhoareill.Numbersofgiftssuggestgoodluck.Soonebottleofwineisunusual.Onebottleofwineisquiteenough,twoarealsowelcomebutunusualandnotexpected.65GiftsDifferentwaysofrecei66ShowingHospitalityinDifferentWaysChineseWester