主講教師：講LanguageUsageLanguageUsage三、語言運用部分的十大考點主答案：for Thehunter-gatherertribesthattodayliveasour humanancestorsconsumeprimarilyavegetablediet withanimalfoods.Anysisof58societiesofmodemhunter-gatherers,includingtheKungofsouthernAfrica,revealedthatonehalfemphasizegatheringntfoods,one-thirdconcentrateonfishingandonlyone-sixthareprimarilyhunters.Overall,two-thirdsandmoreofthehunter-gatherer’scaloriescome DetailedstudiesoftheKungbythefoodscientistsattheUniversityofLondon,showedthatgatheringisamoreproductivesourceoffoodthanishunting.Anhourofhuntingyieldsinaverageabout ediblecalories,asanhourofgatheringproduces ntfoodsprovidefor60percentto80percentofthe diet,andnoonegoeshungrywhenthehuntfails.Interestingly,iftheyescapefatalinfectionsoraccidents,thesecontemporaryaborigineslivetooldagesdespiteoftheabsenceofmedicalTheyexperiencenoobesity,nomiddle-agedspread,littledecay,nohighbloodpressure,onheartdisease,andtheircholesterollevelsareverylow(abouthalfoftheaverageadult),ifnooneissuggestingwhatwereturntoanaboriginalstyle,wecertainlycouldusetheireatinghabitsasamodelhealthierThisisaruler.He’sastudent.There’satreeonthehill.Hehasaninteresting固定詞組：alotof\abit\havearest\haveacold\akindof\apieceof\haveagoodtime例子：TherehasbeenaslightincreaseintheconsumptionofImetafriendofmyImetafriendofmyIgottwobooksofIgottwobooksofmy-our-her-A:IloveHemingway’snovelsbecause arethebest.B:Iloveyournovelsbecauseyoursarethebest.1：twiceasmuchmanyas/twicemore2：oneofthemosts句型3：平衡：成分平行：4：越來越:themorethe5：ItisnotsomuchAasB./ItislessAthanB（與其…不如Iephone句型6：Iephone7：morethan/anythingbut/nothingbut/noneother(Thecomputersatourschoolaremoreadvancedthanthoseattheir例句：Thedullestworkisnotsomuchpainfulas1：If+did,I2：If+haddone,Iwouldhave(not)done.3：IfonlyIhaddone!(Ididn’tdoit)4：Butfor+名詞，Icouldnothave…句型5：Iadvise mend/)thatsomemeasuresbe6：Itisnecessary/important/urgentthatsomemeasuresbe7：Itistimethatsomemeasureswere8：Iwouldratherstayathome./Iwouldratheryoustayedat9：IwishthatIcouldlandonthe ng；stopng/stoptodo;remember ng/remembertodo;regretng/regrettodo幾個to ng的表達：beusedto ng;beaccustomedto ng;lookforwardtong;sticktong;objecttong;becommittedto ItistodoItistooto句型：Wherethereisawill,thereisaway. anyonecanfoolwith.”MydaddyItis……Itwasnot指代詞：it,this,that,these,Youuseittorefertoanobject,animal,orotherthingthathasalreadybeenYouuseittorefertoachildorbabywhose youdonotknoworwhoseisnotrelevanttowhatyouaresaying.Youuseitbeforecertainnouns,adjectives,andverbstointroduceyourfeelingsorpointofviewaboutasituation.2）Youusethistoreferbacktoaparticular orimplied.Youusethistoreferbacktoanideaorsituationexpressedinaprevioussentenceorsentences.Youusethistorefertoa orthingthatisnearyou,especiallywhenyoutouchthemorpointtothem.Whentherearetwoormorepeopleornearyou,thisreferstothenearestUsedtoindicatethefartherorlessimmediateUsedtoemphasizetheideaofapreviouslyexpressedwordorthese,Youusetheseatthebeginningofnoungroupstorefertosomeoneorsomethingthatyouhavealreadymentionedoridentified.Youusethosewhenyouarereferringtopeopleorthingsthatareadistanceawayfromyouinpositionortime,especiallywhenyouindicateorpointtothem.復合句（Compound轉折 but,however,Nevertheless,infact,actually,例句：IlearnEnglish,butshelearnsinbyinincontrasttocontrastnotonly,but…aswell/notonly…,but結果：so,asaresult,owingto;dueto；Asaresultof；outof；contribute(success/failure)to；ascribefailureto+名詞；beattributedto+名詞；owesuccessto選擇：or/orAlthough;Though;eveninspiteof;despitefactletnotto ng,whenonlyaslongontheconditionprovidedthatAs,onaccountforthesakeof,byvirtuebymeansItwasnotNotuntil…didWecannotunderstanddiseaseunlessweunderstand whohasthe Theprevioussectionhasshownhowquicklyapassesfromoneschoolchildtothenext，andillustratesthefurther(1)differencebetweenschoolloreandnurserylore.Innurseryloreaverse,learntinearlychildhood,isnotusuallypassedonagainwhenthelittlehasgrownup,andhaschildrenoftheirown, orevengrandchildren.Theperiodbetweenlearninganurseryrhymeandtransmittingitmaybesomethingfromtwentyto seventyyears.Withtheygroundlore,therefore,arhymemaybepassedonwithintheveryhouritislearnt;and,inthegeneral,6)itpassesbetweenchildrenofthesameage,ornearlyso,sinceitis monforthedifferenceinagebetween tobemorethanfiveyears.If,therefore, ygroundrhymebeshowntohavebeencurrentlyforahundredyears,orevenjust(7)forfifty,itfollowsthatithasbeenretransmittedoverandover;(8)verypossiblyithaspassedalongachainoftwoorthreeyounghearersandlers,andthewonderisthatitremainsliveafter(9)somuchhandling,toletalonethatitbearsresemblancetothe(10)originalwording.翻譯：AnefromKunminglandedinBeijing,overthehillsand第一組：ofto,of:經常倒置，Iftherelationshipbetweentwonounsisnotdefinite,usethisprepositiontolinkthem.Thelatterprovidesmoreinformationthantheformer例句：各族人民：peopleofallethnicgroupsacrosstheBeijingUniversityPeople’sHospitalPeople’sHospitalofthePekingUniversityDreamoftheRedLegendoftheCondorWolfTotem/Totemoffor:intention,purposeItisforsomebodytodoItisessential(crucial)tointroducetheproductstotheItisessentialthattheproducts（should）beintroducedtothe…makeitpossibletodobetodo：辨析：begoingto/willIfsomesignsshowthatsomethingwillhappen,itisgoingtohappen.例句：Somebooksaretobetasted,someotherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobetodosomething:一些tong組合搭配：beusedtong,beaccustomedtong,objecttong,sticktong,becommittedtong,lookforwardtong,第二組：aton,inat:ofapoint，beat（besituatedat…/belocatedat…）最小地點和時間限定(atthefootofahill,athomeatschool,atatable,atacorner,atthespeedof,at鐘點，和“位于”，“座落于”、有關的動詞,“朝著、沖著”續、運轉、開啟”onaverage,bringiton（加油）,carryon,decideonsomething,goon,hangon(閑逛)，insiston,keepon,liveonone’sparents,puton,stayon,turnon,switchon,on/above/over:above不接觸、正上方、over覆蓋全距離（over可以做“、結束、克in:進入、里面(into：comeeintotheabove,over,under第四組：through,第五組：with,With:By：out etheopportunitycreatedforHongKongbytheelectionofMr.DongJianhuaasthechiefexecutiveofHongKongSAR 1：Imadeaskirtformydaughterwiththis2：Imadeaskirtformydaughteroutofthis第六組：up,down,onto,into,off,out,outof,throughandacross3：2008Oneofthemostimportantnon-legislativefunctionsoftheU.SCongressisthepowertoinvestigate.Thispowerisusuallydelegatedto-eitherstandingcommittees,specialcommitteessetforaspecific purpose,orjointcommitteesconsistedofmembersofbothhouses.(2)Investigationsareheldtogatherinformationontheneedfuturelegislation,totesttheeffectivenessoflawsalreadypassed,toinquireintothequalificationsandperformanceofmembersandofficialsoftheotherbranches,andinrareoccasions,tolaythe groundworkforimpeaentproceedings.Frequently,committeesrelyoutsideexpertstoassistinconductinginvestigativehearings andtomakeoutdetailedstudiesofissues. Thereareimportantcorollariestotheinvestigativepower.isthepowertopublicizeinvestigationsanditsresults.Most(6)committeehearingsareopentopublicandarereported widelyinthemassmedia.Congressionalinvestigationsneverthelessrepresentoneimportanttoolavailabletolawmakerstoinformthecitizenryandtoarousepublicinterestsinnationalissues.Congressionalcommitteesalsohavethepowertocompeltestimonyfromunwillingwitnesses,andtociteforcontemptofCongresswitnesseswhorefusetotestifyandforperjurythesewhogivefalse 例句：Heisalwayswiseenoughtoseegoodandevil,thatstosay,heisnothing(anything)butafool.例句：Heisnothingbuta例句：Themovieisadapted(adopted)fromoneofHemingway’saccordwithrules/accordingtorules/Inaccordance onaverageincompareAwithBcontrastAwithB/compareAtoBA比作Bconsistof=bemadeupof=becomposed extinguished:熄滅/distinguished:卓越的例句：distinguishedguests貴賓的in例句：Agreatleadermustbeagraciousinspiteofdespiteifonly（虛擬語氣）/onlyif=provided例句：Providedthattheamountofworkisnotexcessive,eventhedullestworkislesspainfulthanerfere 例句：謙虛謹慎，不卑不亢(modestandcautious,neitherhaughtynor（humbleandprudent,neitherproudnornotsomuchAasBA,BlessAthanBA如說是Boutofquestion:/outofthequestion翻譯：Themayorisrespectable,andeveryoneintownisrespectfultoinrespectofrelyon/dependon/count例句：稀有金屬：scaremetal/raresomewhere景例句：scene:燕京八景：EightScenesinBeijing/EightViewsin單詞單復數：sportsgame,socialskills,studies,goodmanners,salesdepartment,formulae,format,formationphenomenon,phenomena,faculty,stafffourheadofcattleFromaveryearlyage,perhapstheageoffiveorsix,IknewthatwhenIgrewIshouldbeawriter.Betweentheagesofaboutseventeenandtwenty-fourItriedtoabandonthisidea,butIdidsowiththeconscience2)thatIwasoutragingmytruenatureandthatsoonorlaterIshouldhave3)tosettledownandwritebooks.Iwasthemiddlechildofthree,buttherewasagapoffiveyearsoneitherside,4)AndIbarelysawmyfatherbeforeIwaseight.ForthisandotherreasonsIwassomewhatlonely,andIsoondevelopeddisagreeingmannerismswhichmademe5)unpopularthroughoutmyschooldays,Ihadthelonelychild’shabitofmakingupstoriesandholdingconversationswithimaginative s,andIthink6)fromtheverystartmyli lambitionsweremixedupwiththefeeling7)ofbeingisolatedandundervaluedIknewthatIhadafacilitywithwordsandpoweroffacinginunpleasantfacts,andIfeltthatthiscreatedasortofprivateworldwhichIcouldgetmyownbackformyfailureineveryday9)life.Thereforethevolumeofseriousi.e.seriouslyintendedwriting10)whichIproducedallthroughmychildhoodandboyhoodwouldnotamounttohalfadozenpages.Iwrotemyfirstpoemattheageoffourorfive,mymothertakingitdowntodictation.a/theAbeggarknockedatmydoor.Heaskedforamealandaglassofbeer.Thebeggarstoodonhisheadandsangsongs.HisnameisPercyButtons.admission:允許、錄取/admittance:入場權(錄取：AdmissionOffice；入場費：admittancefee) /admit:被迫承認（認錯:admitmistake,admit：Iknownotinwhattermstoacknowledgeyour例句：Heisalwayswiseenoughtoseethegoodandtheevil,that’stosay,heisnothing(anything)butafool.例句：Moneyisnothingbut/nothingmorethanreflectionofvalueofthe例句：Youwillapplythetheoriesatthisclassroomwitheffectivenessinyourwork.你將把本課堂中學到的理論有效地運用到工作中。狡猾的(Acunningmantakesadvantageofothers.)audible:聽得到的/auditor:審計員/auditorium：大禮堂/audacious:/audacity:例句：鑒于：AstherewerenoRussianspiesoverhearinghertalkwithothers,shecouldcommunicatewithanyoneinanylanguageshecouldspeak鑒于沒有密探偷例句：隨著：Asmoremoleculesconglomerate,itsintensitygrew例句：Iwanderedlonelyasacloud.(likea ourancestorsliveongatheringandhunting)例句：Themovieisadapted(adoptedfromoneofHemingway’saccordwithrules/accordingtorules/Inaccordanceaccurate(accurateinformation,accuratestatistics,accurateon…)/claim:claimthesovereigntyover status/attainarankbeer:/bierassemble:/congregate:集中/conglomerate:、物detaent:分離、超脫態度/attaent：愛慕/attached：連接的/detached：脫compareAwithB:/contrastAwithB:compareAtoB:A比作confine…to局限/confinetongconsistof=becomposedcontributeAtoB（之所以，是因為）/ascribeAtoB/attributeAtoB/oweAtoB：之所以，是因為/resultin/resultfrom/beresponsiblefor/arisefrom/stemfrom/originatefrom/betracedbackto例句：Wecontributetherapideconomicgrowthintoitsofreformandopeningtotheoutsideworld.例句：ThescarcityofdeerincertainregionsofTexascanbeattributedtotheemergenceofsomespiralwormsfromHondulus.ThesewormsmayresultfromtheextinctionofsuchdeerinTexas.ThespiralwormsfromHonduluscanberesponsibleforthescarcityofdeerincertainregionsofTexas例句：blameAforB=AberesponsibleforB:SomeresearchersblamewormsfromHondulusforthescarcityofdeerincertainregionsofTexas例句：SomezoologistsascribethescarcityofdeerincertainregionsofTexastotheemergenceofsomespiralwormsfromHondulus.TheypredictthatthesewormsmayresultfromtheextinctionofsuchdeerinTexas. compareA pareAtoB 同 抱怨自滿自 complement:compliment:contrastAwithB/bycontrastconsciousness:意識/conscience:良知（loseone’sconsciousness,beincoma,blackout,beknockedout）considerate:考慮周到的/considerable:可觀的(Webenefittremendouslyfrommutualaffectionbetweenindividuals,andthereforeitsrewardisobviouslydeer/cattle(fourheadofembark例句：distinguishedguests貴賓 feedon: ble:易燃燒的（ blecloth,flblegas, ble ble:易燃的 ble的befamiliarwithsomethingcake（例句：Halftheirsavingsweregone/Halfoftheirsavingswasformulae(formula的復數)/formula:/format：格式（phenomenon：現ingeneralinthegeneral;onaveragein例句：Agreatleadermustbeagraciousignore忽略/ignorance:/ignominy：/neglect:忽略/negligence：玩inspiteofdespiteifonly（虛擬語氣）/onlyif=provided例句：Providedthattheamountofworkisnotexcessive,eventhedullestworkislesspainfulthanidle.（Iftheworkisnottoomuch,ameaninglessworkisidle,ratherthanpainful.）beinterestedin/withgreatinterestinterfere affairs他國 ernmentinterventionjudiciary:司法的/judicial：公正的101)keenonsomething/somebody：喜愛102)legible:清晰的，容易辨認的/legal: low:低/lowerthecost belocatedat/in:位于… (bymeansof/forthesakeof/byvirtue例句：很多年輕人在自己的房間里用電腦聊天（Givenaboveisacartoonvariouskindsofyoungpeople,whoaresittingintheroomsoftheirown.Theseyoungstersarechattingwitheachother,bymeansofMSN）例句：謙虛謹慎，不卑不亢(modestandcautious,neitherhaughtynorhumble)（humbleandprudent,neitherproudnormodest）non-…/anti…:例句：non-smokingarea/anti-terrorism53)notsomuchAasBA,BlessAthanBA如說是Bnoneotherthan:Themanheinterviewedwasnoneotherthanhisformerschoolmate：nomorethan：不多于/nothingmorethan：只不onceforallonceinonhand:準備/athand/offhandontheaxis/ontheonthescaleof（inthescaleoutofquestion:/outofthequestion:不可能 thepress:bepittedagainsteachotherproduction:生產、產品/landproduce:農產品/productivity:生產力/product：產/Somethingwas例句：Iwantyoutoprovidemeanbeproficientin/atsomething:熟練的精通的131)protectionagainstsomething/protectionforsomebody132)principal校長（中學）/headmaster:英國133)providedthat：假如、倘若、regard：關心、尊重/informationregarding：關于/informationinregardto：inregardtoinrespectof：關于/inrespectto：在…方面/intermof：141)retrospect:回顧/introspect:內省andeveryoneintownisrespectfultohim.)inrespectofrelyon…for…/dependon…for…/count人稱spend/物體take/costHerefusedtospendmoneywiselyHewiselyrefusedtospendmoney（Herefusetospendmoneyinawisemanner/Itwaswiseofhimtorefusetospendmoney）bysea/atsea例句：稀有金屬：scarcemetal/raremetalsomething:somewhere:/sometimesometimes候/sometime某一時段/sometimes幾次sensitive:敏感的/sensible:/sentimental:多情善感的(eatsensibly:節制飲食sleepregularhoursneverstayuplateavoidovereatingandoverdrinking避免暴飲暴食)sports體育/sales：銷售158)superior:上級/superiority:高傲159)stationary:/stationerythreetimesmorethan名/threetimesasas名/threetimes+例句：Anewlaptopcostsaboutthreetimesasexpensiveasthepriceofasecond例句：Anewlaptopcostsaboutthreetimesmoreexpensivethanthepriceofasecondone例句：Anewlaptopcostsaboutthreetimesthepriceofasecondtakesomethingintoaccount(considerationHewasnotthemanthattotheextent/inlarge 景例句：燕京八景：EightScenesinBeijing/EightViewsinNineistothreewhatthreeistooneNineistothreeasthreeisto例句：4billionworthofgoods/beworthyofsomething/somebody/beworthyofng1）1999Thehunter-gatherertribesthattodayliveasour humanancestorsconsumeprimarilyavegetablediet withanimalfoods.Anysisof58societiesofmodemhunter-gatherers,includingtheKungofsouthernAfrica,revealedthatonehalfemphasizegatheringntfoods,one-thirdconcentrateonfishingandonlyone-sixthareprimarilyhunters.Overall,two-thirdsandmoreofthehunter-gatherer’scaloriescomefrom DetailedstudiesoftheKungbythefoodscientistsattheUniversityofLondon,showedthatgatheringisamoreproductivesourceoffoodthanishunting.Anhourofhuntingyieldsinaverageabout ediblecalories,asanhourofgatheringproduces ntfoodsprovidefor60percentto80percentofthe diet,andnoonegoeshungrywhenthehuntfails.Interestingly,iftheyescapefatalinfectionsoraccidents,thesecontemporaryaborigineslivetooldagesdespiteoftheabsenceofmedicalTheyexperiencenoobesity,nomiddle-agedspread,littledecay,nohighbloodpressure,onheartdisease,andtheircholesterollevelsareverylow(abouthalfoftheaverageadult),ifnooneissuggestingwhatwereturntoanaboriginalstyle,wecertainlycouldusetheireatinghabitsasamodelhealthier2）2000The ticalwords ysolargeapartinEnglishrareforthemostpartsharplyandobviouslydifferentfromthelexicalAroughandreadydifferencewhichmayseemthemost isthat ticalwordshave“lessmeaning”,butin somegrrianshavecalledthem“empty”asopposedinthe“full”wordsofvocabulary.But isarathermisledwayofexpressingthe Althoughawordlike“the”isnotthenameofas“man”is,itisveryfarawayfrombeing thereisasharpdifferenceinmeaningbetween“manisand“themanisvile”,yettheisthesinglevehicle thisdifferenceinMoreover, ticalwordsdifferconsiderablythemselvesastheamountofmeaningtheyhaveevenin thelexicalsense.Anothernameforthegrticalwordshasbeen“littlewords.”Butsizeisbynomeanagoodcriterion fordistinguishingthegr ticalwordsofEnglish,whenweconsiderthatwehavelexicalwordsas go,man,say,car.Apartfromthis,however,thereisagooddealoftruthinwhatsomepeoplesay:certainlydocreateagreatnumberofobscuritywhen weomitthem.ThisisillustratednotonlyinthepoetryofRobertBrowningbutintheproseofegramsandnewspaperDuringtheearlyyearsofthiscentury,wheatwasseenastheverylifebloodofWesternCanada.Peopleoncitystreetstheyieldsandthepriceofwheatinalmostasmuchfeelingas theyweregrowers.Themarketingofwheatbecamean favoritetopicofWarsetthestageforthemostdramaticeventsinthewesterncrop.Foryears,farmersmistrustedspeculativesellingascarriedonthroughtheWinnipegGrainWheatpricesweregenerallylowintheautumn,sofarmersnotwaitformarketstoimprove.Ithadhappenedtoooftentheysoldtheirwheatsoonshortlyafterharvestwhenfarmwerecomingdue,justtoseepricesrisingandspeculatorsgettingOnvariousoccasions,producergroups,askedfirmerbut ernmenthadnowish einvolving,leastnotuntilwartimewhenwheatpricesthreatenedtoAnxioustocheckinflationandrisinglifecosts,theernmentappointedaboardofgrainsupervisorstodealwithdeliveriesfromthecropsof1917and1918.GrainExchangetradingwassuspended,andfarmerssoldatpricesfixedbytheboard.Tohandlewiththecropof1919, appointedthefirstCanadianWheatBoard,withtotalauthority buy,sell,andsetTherearegreatimpedimentstothegeneraluseofastandardinpronunciationcomparabletothatexistinginspelling(orthography).Oneisthefactthatpronunciationislearnt'naturally'andunconsciously,andorthographyislearnt yandconsciously.Largenumbersofus,infact,remainthroughoutourlivesquiteunconsciouswithwhat ourspeechsoundslikewhenwespeakout,anditoften comesasashockwhenwefirstlyheararecordingofourselves. Itisnotavoicewerecognizeatonce,whereasourownhandwritingissomethingwhichwealmostalwaysknow.Webeginthe"natural' learningofpronunciationlongbeforewestartlearningtoreadorwrite,andinourearlyyearswewentonunconsciouslyimitatingand6)practicingthepronunciationofthosearoundusformanymorehourspereverydaythanweeverhavetospendlearningevenourdifficult7)Englishspelling.Thisis'natural',therefore,thatourspeech-sounds(8)shouldbethoseofourimmediatecircle;afterall,aswehaveseen,speechoperatesasameansofholdingacommunityand givingasenseof'belonging'.Welearnquiteearlytorecognizea'stranger',someonewhospeakswithanaccentofadifferentcommunity-perhapsonlyafew 5）2003DemographicindicatorsshowthatAmericansinthepostwarperiodweremoreeagerthanevertoestablishfamilies.Theyquicklybroughtdowntheageatmarriageforbothmenandwomenandbroughtthebirthratetoatwentiethcenturyheightaftermorethan ahundredyearsofasteadydecline,producingthe“babyboom”. Theseyoungadultsestablishedatrendofearlymarriageandrelativelylargefamiliesthatwentformorethantwodecadesandcaused amajorbuttemporaryreversaloflong-termdemographicFromthe1940sthroughtheearly1960s,Americansmarriedatahigh rateandatayoungeragethantheirEuropecounterparts. Lessnotedbutequallymoresignificant,themenandwomen whoformedfamiliesbetween1940and1960neverthelessreduced(7)thedivorcerateafterapostwarpeak;theirmarriagesremainedintacttoagreaterextentthandidthatofcoupleswhomarriedinearlier(8)aswellaslaterdecades.SincetheUnitedStatesmaintainedits(9)dubiousdistinctionofhavingthehighestdivorcerateintheworld,thetemporarydeclineindivorcedidnotoccurinthesameextentinEurope.Contrarytofearsoftheexperts,theroleofbreadwinnerandhomemakerwasnotabandoned.6）2004Oneofthemostimportantnon-legislativefunctionsoftheU.SCongressisthepowertoinvestigate.Thispowerisusuallydelegatedtocommittees-eitherstandingcommittees,specialcommitteessetforaspecific purpose,orjointcommitteesconsistedofmembersofbothhouses.(2)Investigationsareheldtogatherinformationontheneedfuturelegislation,totesttheeffectivenessoflawsalreadytoinquireintothequalificationsandperformanceofmembersofficialsoftheotherbranches,andinrareoccasions,tolaygroundworkforimpeaentproceedings.Frequently,relyoutsideexpertstoassistinconductinginvestigativeandtomakeoutdetailedstudiesofThereareimportantcorollariestotheinvestigativepower.Omitteehearingsareopentopublicandarewidelyinthemassmedia.CongressionalneverthelessrepresentoneimportanttoolavailabletotoinformthecitizenryandtoarousepublicinterestsinCongressionalcommitteesalsohavethepowertotestimonyfromunwillingwitnesses,andtociteforofCongresswitnesseswhorefusetotestifyandforthesewhogivefalse 7）2005TheUniversityasAnumberofcollegesanduniversitieshaveannouncedsteeptuitionincreasesfornextyear.Muchsteeperthanthecurrent,verylow,rateofinflation.Theysaytheincreasesareneededbecauseofalossinvalueofuniversityendowmentsheavilyinvesting(1)incommonstock.Iamskeptical.Abusinessfirmchoosesthepricethatizesitsnetrevenues,irrespectivefluctuationsin andincreasinglytheoutlookofuniversitiesintheUnitedStatesisindistinguishablefromthoseofbusinessfirms.Theriseintuition(3)mayreflectthefacteconomicuncertaintyincreasesthedemand foreducation.Thebiggestcostofbeingintheschoolisforegoingefromajob(thisisprimarilyafactoringraduateandprofessional-schooltuition);thepoorone'sjobprospects, themoresenseitmakestoreallocatetimefromthejobmarkettoeducation,inordertomakeoneselfmoreThewayswhichuniversitiesmakethemselvesattractive tostudentsincludesoftmajors,studentevaluationsofteachers,givingstudents ernancerole,andeliminaterequired Sky-hightuitionshavecauseduniversitiestoregardtheirstudentsascustomers.Justasbusinessfirmssometimescolludetoshorten therigorsofcompetition,universitiescolludetominimizethecosttothemoftheathleteswhomtheyrecruitinordertostimulatealumnidonations,sothebestathletesnowoftenbypasshighereducationinordertoobtainsalariesearlierfromprofessionalteams.Anduntiltheywerestoppedbytheantitrust ,theIvyLeagueschoolscolludedtolimitcompetitionforthebeststudents,byagreeingnottoawardscholarshipsonthebasisofmeritratherthanpurelyofneed,justlikebusinessfirmsagreeingnottogivediscountsontheirbestcustomer. Weuselanguageprimarilyasameansofcommunicationotherhumanbeings.Eachofusshareswiththecommunityinwhichweliveastoreofwordsandmeaningsaswellasagreeingconventionsas(1)tothewayinwhichwordsshouldbearrangedtoconveyaparticular(2)message;theEnglishspeakerhasinhisdisposalavocabularyanda setofgr ticalruleswhichenableshimtocommunicatehis thoughtsandfeelings,inavarietyofstyles,totheotherEnglish(5)speakers.Hisvocabulary,inparticular,boththatwhichheusesactivelyandthatwhichherecognizes,increasesinsizeashegrowsoldasaresultofeducationand But,whetherthelanguagestoreisrelativelysmallorlarge,thesystemremainsnomorethanapsychologicalrealityfortheindividual,unlesshehasameansofexpressingitintermsabletobeseenbyanother memberofhislinguisticcommunity;hehastogivethesystemaconcretetransmissionform.Wetakeitforgrantedthetwomost commonformsoftransmission-bymeansofsoundsproducedbyourvocalorgans(speech)orbyvisualsigns(writing).Andtheseare(9)amongmoststrikingofhumanachievements. 9）2007Fromwhathasbeensaid,itmustbeclearthatnoonecanmakeverypositivestatementsabouthowlanguageoriginated.Thereisnomaterialinanylanguagetodayandintheearliest recordsofancientlanguagesshowsuslanguageinanewand emergingstate.Itisoftensaid,ofcourse,thatthelanguage(3)originatedincriesofanger,fear,painandpleasure,andthenecessary(4)evidenceisentirelylacking:therearenoremotetribes,noancientrecords,providingevidenceofalanguagewithalargeproportionof(5)suchcriesthanwefindinEnglish.Itistruethattheabsenceofsuchevidencedoesnotdisprovethetheory,butinothergrounds toothetheoryisnotveryattractive.PeopleofallracesandlanguagesmakerathersimilarnoisesinreturntopainorpleasureThefactthat(7)suchnoisesaresimilaronthelipsofFren enandMalaysians,whoselanguagesareutterlydifferent,servestoemphasizeonthe fundamentaldifferencebetweenthesenoisesandlanguageproper,Wemaysaythatthecriesofpainorchortlesofamusementarelargelyreflexactions,instinctivetolargeextent,whereaslanguageproper(9)doesnotconsistofsignsbutofthesethathavetobelearntand thatarewhollyconventional.10）2008Thedesiretouselanguageasasignofnationalisaverynaturalone,andinresultlanguagehasyeda prominentpartinnationalmoves.Menhaveoftenfeltthe needtocultivateagivenlanguagetoshowthattheyaredistinctive(3)fromanotherracewhosetheyresent.AtthetimetheUnitedStatessplitofffromBritain,forexam- ple,therewereproposalsthatindependenceshouldbelin-guisticallyacceptedbytheuseofadifferentlanguagefrom thoseofBritain.TherewasevenoneproposalthatAmeri- cansshouldadoptHebrew.OthersfavoredtheadoptionofGreek,though,asonemanputit,thingswouldcertainlybesimplerforAmericansiftheystuckontoEnglishandmade theBritishlearnGreek.Attheend,aseveryoneknows,the twocountriesadoptedthepracticalandsatisfactorysolutionofcarryingwiththesamelanguageasbefore. Sincenearlytwohundredyearsnow,theyhaveshownthe worldthatpoliticalindependenceandnationalidentitycanbecompletewithoutsacrificingtheenormousmutualadvantagesofacommonTheprevioussectionhasshownhowquicklyapassesfromoneschoolchildtothenext，andillustratesthefurther(1)differencebetweenschoolloreandnurserylore.Innurseryloreaverse,learntinearlychildhood,isnotusuallypassedonagainwhenthelittlehasgrownup,andhaschildrenoftheirown, orevengrandchildren.Theperiodbetweenlearninganurseryrhymeandtransmittingitmaybesomethingfromtwentyto seventyyears.Withtheygroundlore,therefore,arhymemaybepassedonwithintheveryhouritislearnt;and,inthegeneral,6)itpassesbetweenchildrenofthesameage,ornearlyso,sinceitis monforthedifferenceinagebetween tobemorethanfiveyears.If,therefore, ygroundrhymebeshowntohavebeencurrentlyforahundredyears,