LessonFour

Contextualvariationinlanguage-learnerlanguageTasks:1writingapaperonthetopicAcomparisonbetweentwolevelsofwrittenEnglishofstudentsinNantongUniversityLessonFour

Contextualvariat1QsforUnitFour1.Whatarethetypesofvariabilityinlanguage-learnerlanguage?2.Whatarethemainpointsofsystematicvariability?3.Whatarethemainpointsofnon-systematicvariability?4.Whatarethemainpointsofcontextualvariability?5.Whatarethemainpointsoffreevariability?6.Whatstyleis‘basic’forourunderstandingoflanguage–learnerlanguage?Why?7.Whatarethebestdatatouseindescribinginterlanguage?8.Howcanthevariablenatureofthelearner’sinterlanguagebeaccuratelydescribed?9.WhatistheroleofcontextualvariabilityinSLA?10.WhatistheroleoffreevariabilityinSLA?QsforUnitFour1.Whatarethe2Whatisvariability?Languageusers(includinglanguagelearners)varyintheusetheymakeoftheirlinguisticknowledge.Thisvariabilitycanbeunsystematic(i.e.haphazard)orsystematic(twoormorelinguisticformsfunctionasvariants,whichareusedpredictablyaccordingtothecontext).Whatisvariability?Languageu3系統(tǒng)變異舉例情境變異：在正式場合與非正式場合Heplaysbasketball.(正式場合)Heplay_basketball.(非正式場合)上下文語境變異：隨上下文語境變化Mr.SmithlivesinLondon.(contextA)Mr.Smithwholive_inLondonmarriedmysister.(contextB)系統(tǒng)變異舉例41.Whatarethetypesofvariabilityinlanguage-learnerlanguage?

Typesofvariabilityinlanguage-learnerlanguage:Individualvari(ductofindividualLearnerfactors)SystematicVariabilitylinguisticcontextContextualvariabilitysituationalVariabilitycontextIninterlgfreevariabilityNon-systematicVariabilityperformancevariability1.Whatarethetypesofvariab52.Whatarethemainpointsofsystematicvariability?1.SystematicvariabilityisaccountedforbyheterogeneouscompetencemodelVariablerulesImplicationalanalysis(Approachestoresolvingthecontrodictionbetweenvariationandsystematicity)2.Variabilitycausedbysituationalfactors(Labov’ssocialinguisticmodel)Languagebehaviourwaspredictable.Style-shiftingtookplacesystematically.3.Variabilitydeterminedbylinguisticfactors.2.Whatarethemainpointsof6Systematicvariation

linguisticMr.SmithlivesinBrisbane.Contextual Mr.Smithwholive_inBrisbane.

situationlevelsofformality;fromvernacularto formalIndividual age,motivation,personalityetc.Systematicvariation7Homogeneouscompetenc語言使用者擁有一系列同類規(guī)則（語言能力linguisticcompetence），它們是語言運(yùn)用(performance)能力的基礎(chǔ)。語言知識與非語言知識分離。排除風(fēng)格變異。認(rèn)為所有變異都是非系統(tǒng)變異。Heterogeneouscompetence將語境因素看成是語言使用者應(yīng)用語言知識的構(gòu)成部分，即語用者不僅知道什么是正確的，而且還知道在特定語境下什么是合適的。非語言知識（語用知識）也是系統(tǒng)的。認(rèn)為語言變異可分為系統(tǒng)變異和非系統(tǒng)變異。Homogeneouscompetenc語言使用者擁有一系8Fiveaxiomsabouthowtostudylanguageuse(Labov1970)Fiveaxiomsabouthowtostudy9Allspeakerspossessseveral‘styles’.Thatis,theyadapttheirspeechtomakeitfitthesocialcontext.‘Stylescanberangedalongasingledimension,measuredbytheamountofattentionpaidtospeech.’Alanguageuservariesinthedegreetowhichheisabletomonitorhisspeechindifferentsituations.Thevernacularisthestyleinwhichminimumattentionisgiventomonitoringspeech.Itisthestyleassociatedwithinformal,everydayspeech.Itprovides‘themostsystematicdata’forlinguisticstudy.Itisnotpossibletotapthevernacularstyleoftheuserbysystematicobservationofhowheperformsinaformalcontext(suchasanexperiment).Theonlywaytoobtaingooddataonthespeechofalanguageuseristhroughsystematicobservation.Allspeakerspossessseveral‘101)當(dāng)社會語境和話題變化時(shí),所有說話者都會在一定程度上改變他們的語言。2)語體可以按照一個(gè)單一維度分類,即給予話語的注意程度。語言使用者在不同場景中會調(diào)整對自已言語的監(jiān)控程度。3)說話者對隨意語體的話語給予的監(jiān)控注意最少。這種語體與非正式的、日常的話語相聯(lián)系并且為語言研究提供最系統(tǒng)性的語料4)通過系統(tǒng)的觀察語言使用者在正式語境(如實(shí)驗(yàn))中的表現(xiàn)不可能發(fā)現(xiàn)隨意語體。5)獲得關(guān)于語言使用者話語的“好數(shù)據(jù)”的唯一途徑就是通過系統(tǒng)觀察。1)當(dāng)社會語境和話題變化時(shí),所有說話者都會在一定程度上改變11TheconflictbetweenthefourthandfifthaxiomsleadstowhatLabovcallsthe‘Observer’sParadox’.Gooddatarequiresystematicobservation,butthispreventsaccesstotheuser’svernacularstyle,which,becauseitisthemostsystematicstyle,istheprincipalgoaloflinguisticenquiry.Theconflictbetweenthefourt12Anexampleofhowasociolinguisticmodeldealswithvariabilitycausedbysituationalfactors:Labov(1970)examinedthespeechpatternsofNewYorkers.Hecollecteddatainvariouswaysinordertosamplearangeofspeechstyles.TheseheclassifiedasCasualspeechCarefulspeechReadingWordlistsMinimalpairsThesestyleswerespreadalongacontinuumaccordingtotheamountofattentionpaidbythespeakerstotheirownspeech.Thusin(1)verylittleattentionwaspaid,whilein(5)carefulmonitoringoccurred.Theimportantpointwasthatlanguagebehaviourwaspredictable.Anexampleofhowasociolingu13Labovalsodealswithvariabilitydeterminedbylinguisticfactors.Heexaminedtheuseofthecopula(‘be’)inutterancesproducedbyspeakersofBlackEnglishVernacularinNewYorkandfoundthatthepresenceofabsenceofthecopulawaslargelysystematic.Thus‘be’wasvariabilityinallcontexts,butcertaincontextspredisposedthespeakertouseitmorefrequentlythanothercontexts.Labovviewscontextualfactorsasanintegralpartoftheuser’sabilitytousehislinguisticknowledge.Labovalsodealswithvariabil14Invariantrules&VariablerulesAhomogeneouscompetencemodelaccountsforahomogeneouslinguisticcompetenceintermsofinvariantrules,aheterogeneouscompetencemodelsuchasLabov’saccountsforcommunicativecompetenceintermsofvariablerules.Invariantrulesarecategoricalstatementswhichspecifythesetofwell-formedsentencesinthegrammarofalanguage.Variablerulesarestatementswhichgivetheprobabilityofcertaingrammaticalformsoccurringinparticularsituationalandlinguisticcontexts.Invariantrules&Variablerul15WhatisVariablerules?

Categoricalrule:XY/

AWhereXrefertothevariableitself,Ytoitsactualrealization,andAtheparticularcontextorstyle(forexample,thefirstsoundof‘thing’isrealizedas/t/inacasualstyle.)TheactualbehaviourofLabov’ssubjects,however,wasnotusuallycategoricalinthisway.Theytendedtouseonevariantinonestyleandanothervariantinanotherstyletoagreaterorlesserextent.WhatisVariablerules?

Catego16變量規(guī)則“變量規(guī)則”（variablerules)這個(gè)規(guī)則是Labov提出的語言變異的“概率規(guī)則”。F?rch(1980)的舉例：Y（變體）0.6---contextA（casual）Z（變體）0.4---contextAX（變量）Y（變體）0.9---contextB（careful)Z（變體）0.1---contextB變量規(guī)則“變量規(guī)則”（variablerules)17Thisstatesthatagivenvariablefeature,x,ismenifestaseitherYorZwithdifferinglevelsofprobabilitydependingonthecontext/style.Itcanshowthatspeakersaremuchmorelikelytousetheprestigefeature,Y,inacarefulstyle,B,thaninamorecasualstyle,A,and,conversely,thattheyarelesslikelytousethelesssociallyprestigiousfeature,Z,inBthaninA.Thisstatesthatagivenvaria18ImplicationalanalysisAnalternativewayofaccountingforvariabilityisbymeansofimplicationalanalysis.(Decamp1971;Bickerton1975)Thisapproachinvolvesviewinglanguageasanintersectingsetofidiolects.Bickerton(1975)usedittostudyvariationinthelanguageofspeakersofthecreolecontinuuminGuyana.ImplicationalanalysisAnalter19蘊(yùn)含比例法(implicationalscale)表16位說話者言語中的圭亞那克里奧爾語的變體SpeakerLinguisticfeaturesVingNingdoza1000×2000×300××40×××5××××6××××蘊(yùn)含比例法(implicationalscale)表120語言變化和共時(shí)變異的關(guān)系在克里奧爾語中是很明顯的。一種克里奧爾語有幾種變體(被稱為“方言”):1)基礎(chǔ)方言具有的克里奧爾語特征最強(qiáng);2)中間方言有中等層次的克里奧爾語特征;3)高級方言最接近于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)語言。這3種變體構(gòu)成一個(gè)連續(xù)體,從最基本的基礎(chǔ)方言向高級方言發(fā)展。Bickerton(1975)研究了圭亞那克里奧爾語,發(fā)現(xiàn)可以用蘊(yùn)含量表(implicationalscale)確定不同說話者在克里奧爾語連續(xù)體上的具體位置(表1)。表1報(bào)告了6位說話者對4個(gè)語言特征的掌握情況。說話者1和2只掌握了一個(gè)語法特征,因此他們說的是基礎(chǔ)方言;說話者3和4掌握了兩到3個(gè)語言特征,因此處于中間方言階段;說話者5和6全部掌握了4個(gè)語言特征,已經(jīng)到達(dá)了高級方言階段。在表1中,說話者對語言特征的掌握情況形成了蘊(yùn)含量表,在每一行中如果說話者掌握了左邊的一個(gè)特征就表示他已經(jīng)掌握了此特征右邊的所有特征。例如,如果說話者5掌握了特征Ving,那么他肯定也已經(jīng)掌握了另外3個(gè).語言變化和共時(shí)變異的關(guān)系在克里奧爾語中是很明顯21Bickertonidentifiedthreesegmentsinthiscontinuum.Thebasilect（下層方言）

wasthecreolevarietymostdistinctfromthestandardformofthelanguage.Themesolect（混雜性方言）

isaninterveningvariety,andtheacrolect（上層方言）

thevarietyclosesttothestandard.Bickertonidentifiedthreeseg223.Whatarethemainpointsofnon-systematicvariability?

Non-systematicvariation:‘free’variation:Whenanewformexists alongsideotherforms,e.g.,useofshould/hadbetter/better/haveto/must.Usuallytemporary.

performancevariation:resultofspecificcontextdemands3.Whatarethemainpointsof234.Whatarethemainpointsofcontextualvariability?

Contextualvariabilityinsituationalcontext.Dickerson(1975)foundthatL2learnersusedthetargetlanguagevariantsorthosevariantslinguisticallyclosesttothecorrecttargetlanguageforminsituationwheretheywereabletoaudio-monitortheirspeech,andthosevariantslinguisticallydistantfromthecorrecttargetlanguageforminsituationswhereaudio-monitoringwasnotpossible.4.Whatarethemainpointsof24Schmidt(1977),forinstance,notedthatArabicspeakingstudentsofEnglishbecamemoreaccurateintheiruseofEnglish‘th’soundsinaformaltaskthaninaninformaltask.HealsonotedthattheselearnersdidexactlythesameinL2EnglishastheydidinL1Arabic,wheretheyalsostyle-shiftedfromrelativelowtohighfrequencyintheuseof‘th’sounds,dependingonwhethertheywerespeakingcolloquialArabic(associatedwithinformalsituations)orclassicalArabic(associatedwithformalsituations.)Thepatternsofstyle-shiftingwerethesameinL1andL2.Schmidt(1977),forinstance,25Schmidt(1980)investigatedsecond-verbellipsisinsentenceslike

MaryiseatinganappleandSue*apear.Learnersfromavarietyoflanguagebackgroundsalwaysincludedthesecondverbinsuchsentencesinfreeoralproduction,butincreasinglyomitteditinproportiontothedegreeofmonitoringpermittedbydifferenttasks(i.e.elicitedimitation,writtensentence-combining,andgrammaticaljudgement).Schmidt(1980)investigatedse26Theinterlanguagecontinuum(Tarone1983:152)

vernacularstylestyle2style3style4stylencarefulstyle

unattendedattendedvariouselicitationgrammaticalspeechspeechtasks(e.g.imitation,judgementsdatadatasentencecombination)Theinterlanguagecontinuum(T27Atoneendofthecontinuumisthevernacularstyle,whichiscalleduponwhenthelearnerisnotattendingtohisspeech.Thisisthestylethatisbothmostnaturalandmostsystematic.Attheotherendofthecontinuumisthecarefulstyle,whichismostclearlyevidentintasksthatrequirethelearnertomakeagrammaticaljudgement(e.g.tosaywhetherasentenceiscorrectorincorrect).Thecarefulstyleiscalleduponwhenthelearnerisattendingcloselytohisspeech.Thusthestylisticcontinuumistheproductofdifferingdegreesofattentionreflectedinavarietyofperformancetasks.Atoneendofthecontinuumis28ContextualvariabilityinlinguisticcontextVariabilityasaresultofthelinguisticcontextoccurswhentwodifferentlinguisticcontextinducedifferentformseventhoughinthetargetlanguagetheyrequirethesameform.e.g.MrSmithlivesinGloucester.MrSmithwholiveinGloucestermarriedmysister.Contextualvariabilityinling29

vernacularABSimplecomplexCDcarefulFigure4.3Interlanguageastheintersectionoftwocontinua

30Forexample,itcanbepredictedthat,tobeginwith,useofthethirdpersonsingularwillbemostfrequentwhenthelinguisticcontextissimpleandthestylecareful(i.e.sectionCofFigure4.3).Itwillbeleastfrequentwhenthelinguisticcontextiscomplexandthestyleisvernacular(i.e.B).WhetherA（plexlinguisticcontextbutcasualstyle）leadstogreaterregularityofuseisnotcertain.Forexample,itcanbepredict315.Whatarethemainpointsoffreevariability?

FreevariabilityIntheinitialstagesitislikelythatafairproportionofthevariationishaphazard.Thatis,thelearnerpossessestwoormoreformswhichheusestorealizethesamerangeofmeanings.e.g.Nolookmycard.Don’tlookmycard.(Theboywasplayingacardgameandwantedtostopotherpupilslookingathiscard.)5.Whatarethemainpointsof32

Gatbonton(1978)gradualdiffusionmodel)“擴(kuò)散模式”“習(xí)得階段”(acquisitionphase)“替換階段”(replacementphase)“習(xí)得階段”：學(xué)習(xí)者首先在所有的情境或語境使用一種形式。如漢語的“不”；引入“沒”以后，學(xué)習(xí)者將二者作為自由變體在所有的語境使用；替換階段：學(xué)習(xí)者消除自由變體，“不”和“沒”各司其職。Gatbonton(1978)gradualdi33InterlanguagevariabilityandSLAresearchThekindsofvariabilitydescribedintheprevioussectionposeanumberofproblemsforSLAresearch,and,therefore,forourunderstandingoflanguage-learnerlanguage.Theseproblemsare:Whatstyleis“basic”orprimary?Whatarethebestdatatouseindescribinginterlanguage?Howcanthevariablenatureofthelearner’sinterlanguagebeaccuratelydescribed?Interlanguagevariabilityand346.Whatstyleis‘basic’forourunderstandingoflanguage–learnerlanguage?Why?Tarone(1982;1983)claimsthatthevernacularstyleofinterlanguageisprimary/basic,asitisthemoststable,itseemstoreflectuniversalprinciplesoflanguageacquisition,itisthestyleofunplanneddiscourse.6.Whatstyleis‘basic’forou357.Whatarethebestdatatouseindescribinginterlanguage?

P89AnassumptionisoftenmadeinSLAresearchthatdataareonlyvalidiftheyreflectthelearner’s‘natural’performance,whichinturnisequatedwiththekindofspontaneouscommunicativebehaviourassociatedwithunplanneddiscourse.Thisassumptionisbasedonthebeliefthatthevernacularstyleisinsomewaymorebasicthantheotherinterlanguagestyles.7.Whatarethebestdatatous36Twodangerstobeavoided

TherearetwodangerstobeavoidedinSLAresearch.Thefirstistoavoidmakingfalseclaimsaboutthedataused.Itis,forinstance,misleadingtobasestatementsabouta‘natural’routeondatathathavebeencollectedbymeansofanelicitationinstrument.Theseconddangeristhatofmixingdatafromdifferentsources,makingitimpossibletodistinguishoneinterlanguagestylefromanother.Ifthedatafromarangeoftasks(e.g.speaking,listening,reading,writing,orelicitedimitation)arenotkeptseparate,thesystematicityofinterlanguagewillbedisguised.TwodangerstobeavoidedTher378.Howcanthevariablenatureofthelearner’sinterlanguagebeaccuratelydescribed?

Variablerules—systematicvariabilityDiffusionmodel–FreevariabilityImplicationalscaling--systematicvariabilityFreevariability8.Howcanthevariablenature38VariablerulesOnewayistomakeuseofvariablerules.Theseareruleswhichspecifytheprobabilityoftwoormorevariantsoccurringindifferentsituationalorlinguisticcontexts.Forinstance,learnerssometimesproduceWHquestionswhichareinvertedandsometimesWHquestionswhicharenotinverted.AcloseanalysisofacorpusoflearnerutterancesmayrevealthatmostinvertedWHquestionscontainthecopulaorauxiliary‘be’.Similarlyitmayrevealthatmostnon-invertedWHquestions(butagainnotall)containauxiliariesotherthan‘be’.Itispossibletocapturethiskindofregularitybywritingavariablerulewhichshowsthelevelofprobabilityofinvertedandnon-invertedWHquestionsoccurringwheneachlinguisticconditionprevails.VariablerulesOnewayistoma39Diffusionmodel

Variablerulesarebestusedtodescribesystematicvariability.Theycannothandlefreevariability.Freevariabilityanddevelopmentalchangescanbedealtwithmoreeffectivelyusingadiffusionmodel(Gatbonton1978).Themodelpositstwobroadphasesofdevelopmentofaninterlanguagerule:acquisitionphasereplacementphaseDiffusionmodelVariablerules40Inthe‘a(chǎn)cquisitionphase’thelearnerfirstusesagivenforminhisinterlanguageineverysituationorcontextandthenintroducesasecondform.Tobeginwith,thisisusedtogetherwiththefirstforminallenvironments.Inotherwords,thetwoformsareusedinfreevariation.Inthereplacementphasethelearnerfirstrestrictsoneoftheformstoaspecificenvironment,whilecontinuingtousebothformsinallotherenvironments.Laterherestrictsbothformstotheirrespectiveenvironments.

Inthe‘a(chǎn)cquisitionphase’the41ImplicationalscalingAnothettechniquethathasbeenusedtorepresentthevariationinL2performanceisimplicationalscaling.Itisusedtoplotthevariabilitythatoccursatanypointintime(i.e.thedataarecollectedcross-sectionally),butanassumptionismadethattheobservedhorizontalvariabilitymatchestheverticaldevelopmentthattakesplaceovertime.Thus,thevarietiesarehierarchicallyorderedaccordingtohowcomplextheyare,withthesimplevarietiestakentobedevelopmentallypriortothemorecomplexvarieties.Implicationalscaling,therefore,notonlyhandlessynchronicvariation,butalsoprovidesapictureofthedevelopmentalroute.

ImplicationalscalingAnothett42Variablerulescanbeusedtodescribethevariabilityoflanguage-learnerlanguageatvariousdevelopmentalpoints.Thediffusionmodelhandlesbothsystematicandnon-systematicvariabilityandalsotherelationshipbetweenonevariablesystemandthenextintheprocessofdevelopment.Implicationalscalingrelateshorizontalvariabilitytoverticaldevelopment.Variablerulescanbeusedto43TheroleofvariabilityinSLAVariabilityservesadualpurpose,dependingonthenatureofthevariability:Contextualvariabilityservesasamirrorforviewingthecoursethatsubsequentdevelopmentwilltake.Freevariabilityservesastheimpetusfordevelopment,asthelearnerstrivestomakehisinterlanguagesystemmoreefficient.

TheroleofvariabilityinSLA449.WhatistheroleofcontextualvariabilityinSLA?

Ithasalreadybeennotedthatthecarefulinterlanguagestylecontainsmoretargetlanguageformsthanthevernacularstyle.OnewayinwhichSLAcanproceed,therefore,isbyformswhichareinitiallypartofthelearner’scarefulstyletospreadtohisvernacularstyle.Developmentdoesnotconsistofsuddenjumps,butofthegradualextensionofregularitiesfromformaltoprogressivelyinformalstylesontheonehand,andfromsimpletoincreasinglycomplexlinguisticcontextsontheother.9.Whatistheroleofcontextu45

SociolinguisticargumentThefirstoftheseargumentshastodowiththelearner’smotivationfordevelopinghisinterlanguagesystem.Ithasoftenbeenpointedout(e.g.Schumann1978)thatitispossibletocommunicateeffectivelywithverylittlegrammar---asimplevernacularstylewillsufficeformosteverydaysituation.However,suchasystemwillnotmeetthedemandsofsocialappropriacyforwhichthenormsofuseassociatedwithacarefulstylewillberequired.Forthoselearnerswhoseektobesociallyacceptable,therefore,thereisaneedtotransferformsthatareinitiallyavailableinaformalstyleintothemoreinformalstyle.Sociolinguisticargument46AsLittlewood(1981:156)putsit:Thisstrivingtowardanormwillpullthelearner’swholerepertoireinthedirectionoftherangeofvariationsimilartothatfoundinthenativespeaker’suseoflanguage.Inthiswayitwillprovidethedynamismforthelearningprocess.AsLittlewood(1981:156)puts47PsycholinguisticargumentThesecondargumentinfavourofTarone’saccountofvariabilityinSLAisapsycholinguisticone.Ithasalreadybeenpointedoutthatinthevarnacularstylelittleornomonitoringtakesplace,whileinthecarefulstylecloseattentionisneeded.However,asthecarefulformsareused,theyarepractised,withtheresultthattheybecomemoreautomatic,requirelessattention,andsoareavailableforuseininterlanguagestylesnearerthevernacularendofthecontinuum.Thusstylesofcommunicationinitiallyassociatedwithplanneddiscourseareeventuallyaccessibleinunplanneddiscourse,providedthatsufficientpracticehastakenplace.Psycholinguisticargument4810.WhatistheroleoffreevariabilityinSLA?Thereisaconstantreshufflingofform-functionrelationshipinordertomaximizethecommunicativeeffectivenessoftheinterlanguagesystem;non-systematicvariabilityslowlybecomessystematic.10.Whatistheroleoffreeva49Languagelearningasthedevelopmentoffunction-formmappings(e.g.,theCompetitionModel)

subject&verb{form}Daddyhit agent&action{function}

【語言學(xué)習(xí)】二語習(xí)得(L4正)模版課件50SLA,therefore,consistsofsortingoutform-functioncorrelations.Unlessalternativeformscanbejustifiedbyallocatingthemtodifferentfunctions,redundantformswillbeeliminatedfromtheinterlanguage.SLA,therefore,consistsofso51Thediffusionmodelcanbeadaptedtoillustratehowthiscomplexprocessofresolvingfreevariabilitytakesplace.Asanexample,considerthefollowingexamplebasedonthesedata:Thediffusionmodelcanbeada52FreevariabilityTime3IamnogoDon’tlookIamdon’trunDon’trunTime4IamnogoDon’tgoIamnorunDon’trunTime1IamnogoNolookIamnorunNorunTime2IamnogoNolookIamdon’trunDon’trunThislearnerisusingtwonegativerules1.noV2.don’tVAttime1heusedrule(1),irrespectiveofwhethertheutteranceisindicativeorimperative.Attime2heusesrules(1)and(2)inbothindicativeandimperativeutterances.Attime3heuses(1)and(2),butonlyrule(2)isusedinimperativeutterances.Attime4,(1)isusedonlyinindicativeutterancesand(2)onlyinimperatives.FreevariabilityTime3Time53FreevariabilityFollowingGatbonton,thisdevelopmentcanbedisplayedintheformofatable.EnvironmentIndicativeimperativeAcquisitionphaseTime1(1)(1)Time2(1),(2)(1),(2)ReplacementphaseTime3(1),(2)(2)Time4(1)(2)

Table4.2DiffusionmodelfornegativesFreevariabilityFollowingGatb54Tosummarize,variabilitycontributestoSLAintwoways.First,thereisaspreadofrulesalongtheinterlanguagecontinuum,fromthecarefultowardsthevarnacularstyleandfromsimpletocomplexlinguisticenvironments.Thisprocessismotivatedbythelearner’sfeltneedtobesociallyacceptableSecond,thereistheneedtomaketheinterlanguagesystemmoreefficientbyremovingfreevariability.Thisinvolvestheprogressivereorganizationofform-functionrelationsandtheeventualeliminationofredundantforms.Tosummarize,variabilitycont55

研究中介語變異的價(jià)值在于：了解SLA學(xué)習(xí)者的全過程（如果說該過程是再創(chuàng)造連續(xù)體的話）；注意學(xué)習(xí)者在學(xué)習(xí)過程中所出現(xiàn)的各種變異，分析這些變異，知道語言學(xué)習(xí)者處于什么樣的語言發(fā)展階段，從而找出相應(yīng)的對策。研究中介語變異的價(jià)值在于：了解SLA學(xué)習(xí)者的全56SummaryLanguage-learnerlanguageisvariable.Thevariabilityisbothsystematicandnon-sytematic.Systematicvariabilityisdeterminedbyboththesituationalandlinguisticcontextofuseandoftenreferredtoascontextualvariability.Non-sytematic(free)variabilityprevalentinearlySLAandcontinuesthroughoutthecourseofdevelopment.Itisevidentwhenthelearnerusestwoormoreformstoexpresstherangeoffunctions.InterlanguagevariabilityposesanumberofproblemsforSLAresearch.1)Howtodecidewhichvarietyisbasic.2)HowtocollectL2data,aslearnerperformancevariesaccordingtothenatureofthetask.3)Howtodescribeinterlanguagevariability.SummaryLanguage-learnerlangu57QuestionsforUnit51.WhatarethetwoaspectsofSLApossibllyaffectedbyindividuallearnerfactors?Whichiscontroversal?Whichisnotcontroversal?2.Whatarethedifficultiesinidentificationandclassificationoflearnerfactors?3.Whatarethepersonalfactors?4.Whatarethegeneralfactors?5.AccordingtoBailey’smodelhowdopersonalresponsestothegroupsituationinfluencelearning?6.Whataretheattitudesofstudentstotheteacher?7.Whataretheattitudesofstudentstothecoursematerials?8.Whatareindividuallearningtechniques?9.Whataregeneralfactors?10.HowdoesageinfluenceSLA?QuestionsforUnit51.Whatare5811.Whatisthecriticalperiodhypothesis?12WhatiscognitiveexplanationoftheeffectofageonSLA?13.WhatisaffectiveexplanationoftheeffectofageonSLA?14.WhatisintelligenceandhowdoesitinflueceSLA?15.WhatisaptitudeandhowdoesitinflueceSLA?16.Howiscognitivestyleclassified?17.HowdoescognitivestyleinfluenceSLA?18.Whatistherelationshipbetweenattitudeandmotivation?19.Howdoattitu