段落的展開法1段落的設計段落需要事先設計好。首先要定下一個主題或一個中心意思，并用一句話表達出來(即主題句)；其次，選擇有助于闡述這一中心意思的例子或細節，把它們一一列出；最后，把這些細節按邏輯順序排好，一個段落的初稿就這樣設計出來了。 初學者最好先寫一個提綱。比方說，要寫一個關于集郵的段落，可以先寫下這樣一個中心句：“集郵是一個很有意思的業余愛好”，然后列出下面幾點： (1)郵票上印有美麗的圖案； (2)郵票上印有歷史人物的畫像； (3)每當收集到過去未見過的郵票時，我總是格外高興； (4)從收集的郵票里，我能學到不少知識。 當你重讀以上寫好的四點提綱時，也許會發現最后一點還是放在前面更為合適。按照這個提綱，你可以寫出下面的段落： Philately is an interesting hobbyEvery time I openmy albums and look at the stamps Ive collected over theyears，I learn something newOn many of them are printed drawings or pictures of rare birds，animals，trees orflowersUnder a magnifying glass they look very beautiful，and they help to increase my knowledge of natureOn other stamps there are portraits of historical figures，such as Qu Yuan and DrSun Yatsen, George Washington and Chester WNimitsWhenever I see an unfamiliar name，I will try to find some information about the person by consulting an encyclopedia. In this way I have come to know something about quite a few people who are famous for one reason or anotherSome of my friends and relatives who know I am interested in stamps often show me used envelopesIf I see a stamp which I have never seenbefore or I havent got yet，I will ask them to give it tome，and it seems that they are always kind enough tooblige meIt is always a delight to add a new stamp to mycollection，and the more stamps I have，the more interested I am in philately 上面的這一段一開頭就先提出一個論點點出集郵的好處，隨后舉出實例加以說明。這里用的是以實例展開段落的方法。2按時間展開講故事或追述往事時最簡單、也最清楚的表達方式就是按事件發生的時間順序來敘述。先發生的事情先講，后發生的事情后講。My heart gave a leap when I heard the announcementthat our train would soon arrive at its destination-BeijingLike other passengers，I began to collect my things and put my mug，towel，atlas，apples，and other things into my bagTo the tune of a beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a platformI walked out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of people intoan underground passage and then into a big hallAs I stepped out of the station，I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of BeijingThough I had been on the train for more than thirty hours and spent an sleepless night，I didnt feel tired at all，and I believed my days in Beijing would be as sunny as the skies 3按過程展開 為了講清楚如何做一件事情，我們通常按其步驟的先后順序逐項說明。在這一類文章里常常用祈使句和不定代詞“你”來表達。如果文章中的說明至今有效，須在行文中使用現在時。請看下面的例子： Once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing,you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing.First，place the victim on his back and remove any foreignmatter from his mouth with your fingersThen tilt his head backwards，so that his chin is pointing upNext，pull his mouth open and his jaw forward，pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his noseThen place your mouth tightly over the victimsBlow into his mouth until you see his chest riseThen turn your head to the side and listen for the outrush of air which indicates an air exchangeRepeat the process 4. 按空間展開 我們有時需要對一個地方進行一番描述。不論我們要描述的是一個大國家還是一個小房間，我們都要先設計好描述的順序。要做到這一點，就要先搞清楚所要描述的地方有哪些細節，它們之間的方位關系如何，從哪一個角度開始展開描述比較清楚等。對一個地方的描述最忌零散無章，使讀者摸不著頭腦。請看下面的例子： In the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyardstood three magnolia trees，all in full bloomA little girl was hopping among them，now gazing at a bud，now collecting fallen petalsUnder one of the trees stood her parents，who，while keeping an eye on her，were examining the milk white blossoms with great interest and admirationIn front of another tree a young couple，fresh and bright as the flowers，were posing for a pictureAt one end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb，which looked so charming and real that a boy stooped to sniff at a half-open flowerAt the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them 在上面這個段落里，作者從院子中心的幾棵樹寫起，接著又寫在樹底下和樹周圍的人們的活動，隨后描寫離樹比較遠的在院子兩端的人群。作者用從中心到邊緣的順序來描寫一個小院子，從而使文章顯得錯落有序，條理清晰。再看一個例子： MrCook，a renowned American historian，arrangesthe books on his bookshelves in a unique wayIn the upper right hand corner，there are books about the development of the early colonies in New England and the War of IndependenceRight under them can be found books on the slave trade，the plantation system and the growth of the southern statesThe 1eft side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the Westward Movement，Indian culture，the cowboyscontributions to American society and the Gold Rush in CaliforniaFrom the description above，one can see that MrCook regards his bookshelves as a map of the USand arranges his history books accordinglyIt is odd，but it is convenient 以上一段對藏書擺法的描述既簡單又明了，令人一目了然。描述的順序是從書架的右上方到右下方，然后再移到左邊。5舉例和歸納通過舉例來展開段落，可以使中心句的抽象意思具體化，給讀者留下一個清晰、有趣、深刻和信服的印象。例子可以只舉一個，也可以舉幾個。請看下面的例子： This term several useful and interesting courses havebeen offeredAn Introduction to European Culture，forinstance, gives us a lot of background knowledge of thehistory of European philosophy，literature，and artsFrom time to time we see slide shows of famous paintingsand hear tapes of famous pieces of music，and they makethe lectures all the more interestingAmerican Society andCulture is another course that attracts a 1arge audienceThe teacher，who visited the United States recently，discusses new trends and changes in American life as well as American history and traditionsWe 1ike these and other courses very much，because they help us not only to improve our English but also to broaden our vision 在這段中作者舉了兩個例子來說明為什么有些課程“既有用又有趣”。 下面的段落用幾個名人的例子來闡述一個抽象的概念：“堅持不懈的調查研究”，從而使之具體化，并且給人留下了深刻的印象。同時我們可以注意到，舉例時不必每次都使用“例如”、“比方說”這樣的詞語。 Knowledge often results only after persistent investigationAlbert Einstein，after a lengthy examination of the characteristics of matter and energy，formulated his famous Theory of Relativity，which now acts as a basis for further research in nuclear physicsUsing plaster casts of footprints，fingerprints，and stray strandsof haira detective pertinaciously pursues the criminalAfter years of work Annie Jump Cannon perfected the classification ofthe spectra of some 350 000 starsInvestigations into the causes of polio have provided us with the means for prevention and cure of this dreaded disease only after many years of researchAs students，we too are determined in our investigation to find，retain，and contribute to the store of human knowledge 下面的段落是描述性的，包含了許多細節。首句即是中心句，所有的細節都圍繞著這個中心句展開。這種方法是從概括到具體。 My little niece，a ten-month-old baby, is the most lovelychild I have even seenHer face is like a red apple and her eyes are like bright starsWhen you carry her in your arms，she likes to put her arms around your neckAll the grownups in the family love her very much and often try to make her smileBut quite often it is she who makes us laughOnce I winked at her and she smiledWhen I did it again，she watched me attentivelyThen she tried to imitateWhile we closed one eye to wink，shehad to close both eyes at the same time，and then quicklyopened them againAnd that was her way to winkWeall burst into laughterWhen we looked at her again，shewas staring at us，puzzled，as if she was asking：“Whatare you laughing at?” 另一種通過舉例或細節展開段落的方法是從細節到歸納，即先鋪敘細節，把歸納性的中心句放在段尾。請看下面的例子： Whether you do or do not open a gift in the presenceof the giver；whether you should or should not turn theplate over to look at the makers symbol on the back；whether you put your coat on before or after you leave thehosts house；whether you eat as quietly or as noisily aspossible；whether you carry on a conversation during ameal；whether you walk in front of or behind a seated person；whether it is a friendly or an offensive gesture to putyour hand on the arm of the person with whom you aretalking-these and a thousand other questions are mattersof cultural definitionNone of them is inherently right orwrong，and none is good or bad manners except as a society defines it so 段落中的細節和例子往往按照它們的重要性或趣味性排列：分量輕或趣味性弱的靠前，分量重或趣味性強的置后。請看下面的例子： It was a typical Russian winterThe first snowstormhad turned everything whiteThe wind was howling，swirling and tumbling over a vast land of ice and snow，freezing and destroying whatever stood in its wayAragged，misshapen army was staggering and strugglingdesperately for survival，cold，hungry and decreasing insize every dayThe year was 1812The army was the remnants of Napoleons expeditionary force which waswithdrawing from Russia after receiving its worst defeatThe war with Russia turned out to be a fiasco for Napoleonand had a devastating effect on his career 按重要性或趣味性的順序敘述不僅適用于舉例和歸納展開法，也適用于比較和對比展開法以及原因和結果展開法等。6類比和對比 類比和對比是寫作中常用的方法。我們通常對比中國的過去和現在，對比中西方文化，對比漢語和英語，等等。通過類比和對比，我們往往可以對事物有一個更加明了的認識。嚴格地說，類比用于指出同一范疇的事物之間或者幾個人之間的相似之處，而對比則用于指出他(它)們之間的不同之處。但實際上，類比和對比常常同時使用，原因是人們在議論兩個人或事物時，往往既提出二者的相同之處，又注意到他(它)們之間的差異所在。 可通過兩種不同的做法，用類比和對比的方法展開段落。第一種稱為整體類比或整體對比法，即在闡述完一件事物的特點之后，再擺出與之相比的另一件事物的全部特點。需要注意的是，進行類比或對比的兩件事物的方面應一致，順序應相同，否則就會相互脫離不成對比。第二種作法稱為交替類比或交替對比法，即逐條比較或對比兩個人或兩種事物的特點。 下面的段落中使用的是交替類比法： The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patientsGood houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and efforton their behalf，and hospital patients can alsoGuestshave to adjust to what is for them a change，and certainlyhospital patients must do the sameNo one appreciates acomplaining，unpleasant，unappreciative house guest，andthe hospital staff is no exceptionHouse guests who expectvast changes to be made for their benefit are not popularfor longCertainly nurses and other personnel with theirroutines feel the same way about patients in their careJust as house guests must make adjustments to enjoy theirvisits, so patients must make adjustments to make theirstays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances 從上面的段落可以看出，交替類比法或交替對比法用于集中討論兩種事物的幾個特點，先指出一種事物的一個特點，接著同另一種事物的相應的特點進行比較。這一方法適用于討論內涵比較簡單，特點比較突出的事物。 下面請看另一個例子： The television western of several years ago differsgreatly from the western of todayTen years ago，for example，the swindler or bank robber in a western could be identified not by the crimes he committed so much as by the color of the clothing he wore-which was blackToday the television western reveals the villain by mannerisms and personalityAt one time，every western had a superhuman，invincible “good guy” with whom the viewers could identify because he too 1ived out on the farmCurrently，the central figures of the western are average people who may live on a middleclass street in any part of the countryThey are characters like the bus drivers，mailclerks and accountants who live next door to you in suburbiaAt night they come in off the horses to ride the television rangeThey become persons who respect others，drink and smoke only just a bit，and are able not only to outshoot the“bad guy”，but also to outsmart him with good common sense 當我們想深入地討論兩種事物的相似的特點而這些相似特點的內涵比較復雜，需要詳細解釋時，可以先詳盡闡述一事或一人的各種特點然后再同相比者進行全面的比較。這就是整體比較法。 下面看一個例子： Although Ulysses SGrant and Robert ELee werefierce adversaries during the Civil War，their lives，both military and nonmilitary，had a great deal in commonGrant descended from a family whose members participated in the American RevolutionHe received his commission of second lieutenant from West Point and served in the SpanishAmerican WarHe was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil WarAfter the Civil WarGrant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcyLee also descended from family which engaged in the American RevolutionHe，too，received his commission from West Point and later fought in Mexico during the Spanish-American WarHis fame as a military strategist during the Civil War，when he was the commander of the Confederate armies，is well knownAlthough it is not always pointed out by historians，he，like Grant，had financial difficulties after the Civil War and was compelled to declare bankruptcyBy securing a post as president of Washington College，he was able to avoid additional poverty 上面一段中所用的方法也可用于對比，請看下面一段：In discussing the relative difficulties of analysis Which the exact and inexact sciences face，let me begin with an analogyWould you agree that swimmers are less skillful athletes than runners because swimmers do not move as fast as runners? You probably would notYou wouldquickly point out that water offers greater resistance toswimmers than the air and ground do to runnersAgreed，that is just the pointIn seeking to solve their problems，the social scientists encounter greater resistance than thephysical scientistsBy that I do not mean to belittle thegreat accomplishments of physical scientists who have beenable，for example，to determine the structure of the atomwithout seeing itThat is a tremendous achievement；yetin many ways it is not so difficult as what the social scientists are expected to doThe conditions under which thesocial scientists must work would drive a physical scientistfranticHere are five of those conditionsHe can makefew experiments；he cannot measure the results accurately；he cannot control the conditions surrounding the experiments；he is often expected to get quick results with slowacting economic forces；and he must work with people，not with inanimate objects 比較法中有一種特殊的形式被稱為比擬。即把屬于兩個不同范疇的事物的相似之處加以比較。請看下面的例子： Electricity is transferred from one place to another inmuch the same manner as waterA water pipe performs the same function as a length of wireThe pipe carries water to its point of use in the same manner as wire carries electricity to its point of useA blown fuse results from the same thing as a burst water pipeBoth give out due to extreme pressure applied to the walls of the carrierA switch is to electricity what a faucet is to waterBoth of them control the flow of the substanceSince electricity and water have some common properties，Understanding the job of the plumber will help understanding the work of the electrician 比擬適用于解釋抽象的思想。它能用具體的事物來描述人們無法通過五官所體會到的經驗或想法，使人們對這一經驗或想法有了一個清楚明確的理解。請看下面的例子： Some old people are oppressed by the fear of deathThe best way to overcome itso at least it seems tomeis to make your interests gradually wider and moreimpersonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede，and your life becomes increasingly merged in the universallifeAn individual human existence should be like a riversmall at first，narrowly contained within its banks，and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfallsGradually the river grows wider，the banks recede，the waters flow more quietly and in the end，without any visible break，they become merged in the sea，and painlessly lose their individual beingThe man who，in old age，can see his life in this way will not suffer from the fear of death，since the things he cares for will continue 從上面的段落中我們可以看到，作者用河流比擬人生十分精辟。人生與河流是兩個完全不同的概念，而作者通過用這個比擬把一些深奧難懂的道理明明白白地闡述出來，從而給人留下了難忘的印象。7原因與結果 日常對話中，我們常常問“為什么”，也常?；卮饚А盀槭裁础钡膯栴}，可見分析原因和結果是司空見慣的事情。分析原因和結果，要力求理由充足，邏輯性強。事件發生的原因往往不止一個，后果也不止一個，在進行分析時，要盡量做到討論全面和選材縝密。 主要可通過兩種方法，以原因和結果展開段落。第一種是先寫出結果，再占用主要篇幅一一寫出原因。例如，中心句子是：“在過去幾年里，高等教育對于年輕人來說不再像從前那樣受到重視了?！边@里說的是一種后果，接下來應該逐條討論產生這種后果的原因，如競爭過于激烈，就業相對容易，高等院校所授課程偏于陳舊等等。 第二種方法是先敘述原因，再寫出或預測其后果。例如，某一段落的中心句是：“占良田蓋樓房的現象在中國愈來愈嚴重?！痹谙旅娴钠飸搶懗鲞@一現象引出的種種后果，如農業減產，環境污染加劇，農民大量涌入城市One might wonder why，after the Norman Conquest，French did not become the national language，replacingEnglish entirelyThe reason is that the Conquest was nota national migration，as the earlier AngloSaxon invasionhad beenGreat numbers of Normans came to England，but they came as rulers and landlordsFrench became thelanguage of the court，the language of the nobility，thelanguage of polite society，the language of literatureButit did not replace English as the language of the peopleThere must always have been hundreds of towns and villages in which French was never heard except when visitors of high station passed through 上面這段話的首句(即中心句)提出了一個問題，即諾爾曼人對英國的征服為什么沒有像預想的那樣把英國變成一個講法語的國家?這一問題點出了諾爾曼人征服英國的一種后果，接下來各句則解釋其原因，就中心句展開討論。下面請看另一個例子： This surge of demand for oil will soon begin to sendshock waves through the American economy and transportation systemThe impact of these tremors can already be anticipated：to the consumer they signal the end of a long love affair with the car，and to Detroit they offer an early warning that its 1985 growth aims are dangerously unrealistic. Unless we exercise foresight and devise growth-limit policies for the auto industry,events will thrust us into a crisis that will lead to a substantial erosion of domestic oil supply as well as the independence it provides us with，and a level of petroleum imports that could cost as much as $20 to $30 billion per yearMoreover，we would still be depleting our remaining oil reserves at an unacceptable rate，and scrambling for petroleum substitutes, with enormous potential damage to the environment 上段的中心句先提出一個事實作為根據，接著談它的后果，也就是人們對石油需求的猛增將對美國社會帶來的影響。8 分類 分類就是根據事物的特點分別歸類。我們對各種人或事物進行分類，如樹木，河流，城市，公司，大學生等等。我們根據他(它)們的共性和差別分類，比如我們給河流的分類可按它們的寬度、長度和深度的相近和差別來進行。給蘋果分類時，可以根據它們的大小、產地、顏色、價格或質量分門別類。 使用分類方法展開段落的關鍵在于把握好類別的對應性。例如，