Lecture1TheGrammaticalHierarchyITeachingobjectives:1.HelpstudentstoknowthehierarchicalstructureofEnglishgrammar.2.Getstudentstolearnmorphemeswords,phrasesandsentencesandtheirclassification.IITeachingdifficulties:1.Morphemes2.FourtypesofsentencesIIITeachingproceduresIntroductionThegrammaticalstructureofEnglishisahierarchicalone,whichcanbedividedintofivelevels,i.e.Sentence,Clause,Phrase,WordandMorpheme.Asentenceisthelargestunitandhighestlevelinagrammaticalstructurewhileamorphemeisthesmallestandlowestone.MorphemesAmorphemeisthesmallestunitinEnglishgrammar,andalsothesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.1)FreeMorphemesFreemorphemesaremorphemeswhichcanconstitutewordsbythemselves,e.g.boy,girl,work,water.2)BoundMorphemesSomemorphemeslikede-,dis-,-ness,-lyareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Boundmorphemesaremostlyaffixes.Affixesareattachedtofreemorphemeseithertoformnewwordsortoindicategrammaticalcategories.Affixescanbedividedintotwotypes:prefixesandsuffixes.WordsSimpleWord,Derivative,CompoundWordsimplewords(morphemewords):at,far,hand,getderivatives:prefixes:dislike,unhappy,pronoun,prewarsuffixes:worker,widen,foolish,manlycompoundwords:handbook,outline,moreover,anybodyAccordingtogrammaticalfunction,EnglishwordscanbeclassifiedintoClosedClassandOpenClass.ClosedClassClosedclassreferstoalltheFunctionwords.Thenumberofthistypeofwordsarelimited.Nonewcomerswillenterintothisclass.Therefore,thiskindofwordsarecalledClosedClass.Theyinclude:Preposition:in,on,withoutPronoun:you,he,one,thisDeterminer:a,the,his,that,someConjunction:and,or,but,whenAuxiliary:do,can,must,willOpenClassOpenclassreferstoalltheContentWords.Inthistypeofwords,newwordsappearcontinuously.Therefore,theyarecalledOpenClass.Theyincluded:Noun:Smith,Paris,man,bookAdjective:old,big,cheapAdverb:here,fast,earlyMainVerb:work,make,givePhrasesAphraseisagrammaticalunitwhichisformedbyonewordormorethanoneword.Aphraseisusuallyastringofwordsbuiltuparoundaheadwordwhichdeterminesboththeclassthatthephrasebelongstoandthewaythephraseisstructured.NounPhrase(NP):allthecollegestudentsthetallboysittingthereVerbPhrase(VP):lookspalearrivedlastnightAdjectivePhrase(AdjP):verydifficultcarefulenoughAdverbPhrase(AdvP):veryclearlysoslowlyPrepositionPhrase(P.P):beforethewarinthenorthClausesInlogicalterms,aclauseisaconstructionofasubjectandapredicate.Inviewofgrammaticalrelations,clausesaredividedintotwobroadcategories,themainclauseandthesubordinateclause,thelatterofwhichmayfunctionasanominalclause,arelativeclause,oranadverbialclause.NominalclausesHesaidthathehaddonehisbest.Whathesaidwastrue.RelativeclausesThisisoneofthebestfilmsI’veeverseen.Hefailedtopassthetest,whichwasapity.AdverbialclausesIfIwereyou,Iwouldnotquit.Iwashavingdinnerwhenhecame.6.SentencesIntermsofsentencestructure,sentencescanbeclassifiedintothreekinds:(1)simplesentences,(2)compoundsentencesand(3)complexsentences.Youthrowastoneatthewindow.I’llscream.(twosimplesentences)YouthrowastoneatthewindowandI’llscream.(twocoordinatemainclausesinonesentence).Ifyouthrowastoneatthewindow,I’llscream.(onemainclauseandonesubordinateclausewithinoneandthesamesentence)IVAssignmentMemorizeEnglishgrammaticalterminology.Lecture2TheSentenceStructureITeachingobjectives:1.HelpstudentstoknowthestructureofEnglishsentence.2.GetstudentstolearnthepartsofsentenceandthebasicsentenceofEnglish.IITeachingdifficulties:1.Partsofsentence2.TheexpansionandconversionofthebasicsentenceIIITeachingprocedures1.ClausesWehavesaidthataclauseconsistsofoneormorephrases.Inlogicalterms,aclauseisaconstructionofasubjectandapredicate.Asfarasthestructureisconcerned,clausesfallintosevenmajorpatterns:SV,SVC,SVO,SVoO,SVOC,SVAandSVOA.Inviewofgrammaticalrelations,clausesaredividedintotwobroadcategories,themainclauseandthesubordinateclause,thelatterofwhichmayfunctionasanominalclause,arelativeclause,oranadverbialcause.Besidesthese,inthesubordinateclauses,wealsohavefinite,non-finite,andverblessclauses.Forexample,Hecomplainedthatwhatyousaidwasnottrue.2.SubjectandpredicateThesubjecthasaclosegeneralrelationtowhatisbeingdiscussed,thethemeofthesentence,withthenormalimplicationthatsomethingnew,thepredicate,isbeingsaidaboutasubject.3.ClausepatternsManygrammarbooksrecognizefiveclauseelements:subject(S),verb(V),object(O),complement(C),andadverbial(A).Verbissometimesreferredtoaspredicator.Andaswehavementionearlierinthelecture,wehavesevenbasicclausepatterns:SV,SVC,SVO,SVoO,SVOC,SVAandSVOA.Forexample:SVstructure:Everybodylaughed.Theguestshavearrived.Pricesaregoingdown.SVCstructureThatcarismine.Shelooksverybeautiful.Themusicsoundssweet.SVOstructureShelovesme.Nobodycouldanswerthequestion.Thecarisbuildingupspeed.SVoOstructureIoftensendhime-mails.Marylentmehercar.Igaveherabunchofflowers.SVOCstructureWeelectedG.W.BushpresidentoftheUnitedStates.Wemadehimourspokesman.Hepronouncedhimselfinfavoroftheplan.Inmostcases,adverbialsarenotnecessary,butinsomeSVstructuresandSVOstructureswhensomeverbsareconcerned,adverbialsbecomeindispensable.Forexample,IliveinBeijing.Shakespearelivedinthe16thandearly17thcentury.Theystayedinahotel.HewillbeflyingtoShanghai.Heputthecoininhismouth.Hetreatedhervilely(extremelyunpleasantlyorbadly).Inthesesentences,theadverbialsareindispensable;otherwisethemeaningofeachsentencemaybecomeunclear.Thereforesomegrammariansarguethatweshouldaddanothertwotypesofclausestructures:SVOAandSVAstructures.Basedonthesebasicclausestructures,wewillbeabletoproduceasmanysentencesaswelike.4.SentencesAsentenceconsistsofoneormoreclauses.Aone-clausesentenceistermeda“simplesentence”;asentencemadeupoftwoormoreclausesiscalledeithera“compoundsentence”ora“complexsentence”.Toperformdifferentfunctions,asentencecanbeastatement,aquestion,acommand,oranexclamation.5.Simple,compoundandcomplexsentencesAsdefinedabove,asimplesentencecontainsoneclause.Inasentencecontainingmorethanoneclause,theclausesmayberelatedtooneanotherbycoordination(inacompoundsentence)orbysubordination(inacomplexsentence).6.Statements,commands,questionsandexclamationsIfwethinkofthesocialroleoflanguage,wecansaythatlanguageisbroadlyconcernedwithgivingandrequiringinformationandwithofferingandrequiringthingsoractions.Thefoursentencetypesarerecognizedlargelyonthebasisoftheirsyntacticforms;inthemeantime,theircommunicativefunctionsarealsotakenintoconsideration:7.Transformationandexpansionofthebasicclausepatterns(基本句型的轉換與擴大)Basedonthesevenbasicclausepatternsandthefourtypesofsentences,togetherwiththehelpofthecoordinatorsandsubordinators,wecanthenhaveaninfinitenumberofsentencesofvarioustypes.Hewasahandicappedchild.Heperseveredinhisstudies.Laterhebecameawell-knownscholar.Hewasahandicappedchild,butheperseveredinhisstudies,andlaterhebecameawell-knownscholar.Sincethedayhewasborn,hehadbeenfoundtobeahandicappedchild,butwiththeencouragementfromhisparentsandfriendsheperseveredinhisstudies,andyearslaterhebecameawell-knownscholarwhospecializedinphysics.IVAssignment1.MemorizeEnglish10partsofasentence2.Makingasentenceforeachbasicsentence.Chapter4+5TheSubject-verbConcord(Ⅰ)(Ⅱ)ITeachingobjectives:1.Knowwhatiscalled“subject-verbconcord”;2.Knowtheguidingprinciplesofsubject-verbconcord;IITeachingdifficulties:1.Collectivenounsassubject;2.Nounsendingin–sasthesubject.IIITeachingproceduresSubject-verbConcord(Ⅰ)1. DefinitionConcord,alsotermed“agreement”,canbedefinedas“therelationshipbetweentwogrammaticalunitssuchthatoneofthemdisplaysaparticularfeature(e.g.,plurality)thataccordswithadisplayedfeature(orsemanticallyimplicit)intheother”.2. ThreeguidingprinciplesThesubject-verbconcordisgovernedbythreecomplementaryprinciples:thegrammaticalprinciple,thenotionalprincipleandtheprincipleofproximity.Amongthethreeprinciplesthegrammaticalprincipleisfarmorepopularthantheothertwo.Problemsoftenarisewithconcordwhenthesubjectisacollectivenoun,acoordinatednounphrase,anindefiniteexpressionofamount,anominalclauseorthereintheexistentialsentence.Suchasubjectofteninvalidatesthegrammaticalprincipleandwehavetoresorttootherprinciplestojustifytheconcord.Examples:Everybodywashappywiththedecision.(thegrammaticalprinciple)TheaudiencewerebroughttotheirfeetatthesightofPresidentHuJingtao.(thenotionalprinciple)EitheryouorIamresponsibleforthemistake.(theprincipleofproximity)3.Problemsofconcordwithnounsendingin-sTherearequiteafewnounsthatendin-sbutwhicharenotcountable.Someofthesenounsaretreatedassingular,someasplural,andsomeeitherassingularorasplural.Allthiscanbedealtwithunderthefollowingheadings.3.1Diseaseandgamenamesendingin-sNamesofdiseasesendingin-saremostlytreatedassingular,butthereareafewsuchnames(asmeaslesandrickets)whichcanbeusedeitherassingularorasplural.Gamenamesendingin-saregenerallyusedassingularwiththeexceptionofcardswhichisusuallytreatedasplural.3.2Subjectnamesendingin-icsNamesofsubjectsendingin-icsaregenerallysingularnouns,butsomesuchnounsaretreatedaspluralwhenusedinothersensesthansubjectnames.Compare:Acousticsisthescienceofsound.Theacousticsinthenewconcerthallarefaultless.Economicsisarequiredcourseforallthestudents.Theeconomiesoftheprojectarestillbeingconsidered.3)Geographicalnamesendingin–sGeographicalnamessuchasthenamesofarchipelagos,mountainranges,straitsandfallsaregenerallyusedasplural,exceptforafewtreatedassingularwhenusedascountrynames,eg:TheHimalayashaveamagnificentvarietyofplantandanimallife.TheStraitsofGibraltarhavenotlosttheirstrategicimportance.InearlyJanuary1976,theNetherlandsms'hitbyit~worststormsince1953.3.4Othernounsendingin-sNamesforthingsmadeoftwopartssuchasscissors,pincers,etcareusuallyusedasplural.Butwhentheyareprecededbysuchunitnounsasapairofandtwopairsof,thenumberformofthefollowingverbisgenerallydeterminedbythenumbermarkeroftheunitnoun.Nounsusuallytakingpluralendingssuchasarchives,armsandclothesaregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionofwhereabouts,dramatics,etcwhichmaybetreatedeitheraspluralorassingular.Nounsendingin-ingssuchasclippings,diggings,etcaregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionoftidingswhichcanbeusedbothways.Therearealsonounssuchasbarracksandheadquarterswhosesingularandpluralnumbersharethesameform.Thesenounsaretreatedaspluralwhenusedinthepluralsense,orviceversa.4.ProblemsofconcordwithcollectivenounsassubjectCollectivenounsaresingularinformbutpluralinmeaning.Thechoicebetweengrammaticalandnotionalconcordismostlydictatedbyusage.4.1CollectivenounsusuallyusedaspluralTheseincludepeople,police,cattle,militiamen,etc,TheChinesepeopleareagreatpeople.Domesticcattleprovideuswithmilk,beefandhides.4.2CollectivenounsusuallyusedassingularTheseincludefoliage,machinery,equipment,merchandise,etc:Allthemerchandisehasarrivedundamaged.AllthemachineryinthefactoryismadeinChina.4.3CollectivenounsusedeitheraspluralorassingularTherearecollectivenounsthatcanbeusedeitheraspluralorassingular.Thechoiceoftheverbformfollowingsuchnounsdependsontheexactmeaningofthenouninaspecificcontext.Whenthenounisusedinthesenseofacollectiveasawhole,theverbtakesthesingularform.If,ontheotherhand,thenounisusedinthesenseoftheindividualsthatmakethecollective,theverbtakesthepluralform.Compare:Theanti-crimecommitteeistomakeitsreporttomorrow.Thecommitteearedividedinopinionaboutthisproblem.Thatgroupofsoldiersisatop-notchfightingunit.Thatgroupofsoldiershahthebestratingsofindividualperformance.4.4Acommitteeof,etc+pluralnounWhenapluralnounisprecededbyacommitteeof'/aboardof/apanelof,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform,eg:Acommitteeoffivemenandthreewomenistoconsiderthematter.Theboardofdirectorsisresponsibleforthemanagementofthecompany.Subject-verbConcord(Ⅱ)Thissectiondealswithproblemsofconcordwithacoordinateconstruction,aquantitativeexpression,oranominalclauseassubject.1ProblemsofconcordwithacoordinatesubjectThefollowingrulesaretobeobservedinthecaseofacoordinatesubject.1.1Coordinationwith"and"or"both...and"Coordinationby"and"or"both...and"isusuallytreatedaspluralwhenitreferstotwoormorethantwopersons/things,butitistreatedassingularwhenitreferstoonlyonepersonorthing.Compare:BothPaulineandBobhavegonefishingonMiramarLake.Rain,hailandwindhahcausedanestimated$22,000,O00damagetocropsandlivestock.Thesecretaryandtreasurerwasabsentfromthemeeting.Hamandeggsisagoodbreakfast.1.2Coordinationwith"or'/"either...or","nor"/"neither...nor","notonly_.butalso"Heretheproblemofconcordisgenerallydealtwithaccordingtotheprincipleofproximity.Butininformalstyle,itemscoordinatedby"neither...nor"or"notonly...butalso"cansometimesberegardedasplural,eg:Mysistersormybrotherislikelytobeathome.Eithermyfatherormybrothersarecoming.Neithertheplayersnorthecoachms/(were)overconfident.Notonlytheswitchesbutalsothe'oldwiringbas/(have)beenchanged.2ProblemsofconcordwithexpressionsofquantityassubjectQuantitativeexpressionsfallintotwocategories~definiteandindefinite.2.1ConcordwithexpressionofdefinitequantityassubjectWhenadefinitequantityisregardedasasingleunit,theverbtakesthesingularformandwhenusedinthesenseoftheindividualsthatconstitutethequantity,theverbtakesthepluralform.Compare:Hethoughtthat65dollarsmsnott~muchtoask.Therearegsilverdollarsineachofthestockings.Ifthesubjectis"afraction/percentage+of-phrase",theformoftheverbisdeterminedbythenounintheof-phrase.Apluralnounintheof-phraserequiresapluralverb;asingularoramass.Nounintheof-phraseistobefollowedbyasingularverb,eg:Over60%ofthecityyeasdestroyedinthewar.Two-thirdsoftheswamplandhasbeenreclaimedforfarming.Nearly50%ofthedoctorsarewomen.Ifthesubjectisanexpressionof"Aplus/a~dB"or"AmultipliedbyB",theverbcaneithertakethesingularorthepluralform.If,ontheotherhand,thesubjectisoneof"AminusB"or"AdividedbyB",theverbcanonlybesingular,eg:Sevenplus/andfive(7+5)makes/maketwelve.Fortyminusfifteen(40-15)leavestwenty-five.Fivetimeseight(5x8)is/areforty.Fortydividedbyeight(40+8)isfive.Ifthesubjectisanounphrasecomposedof“onein/outof+pluralnoun”,theverbtakesthesingularformininformalstyle,butininformalstyleitcanbeplural,eg:Oneintenstudentshas/gavefailedtileexam.Oneoutoftwentywas/werebadlydamaged.2.2ConcordwithexpressionofindefinitequantityassubjectWhenthesubjectisanounphrasecomposedof"allof...,someof...,noneof...,halfofmostofetc',thenumberoftheverbisdeterminedbythenounintheof-phrase.Thisisalsotrueof"lotsof,heapsof,loadsof,scadsof,plentyof+noun",eg:Allofthecargoislost.Allofthecrewweresaved.Lotsoffoodisgoingtowaste.Lotsofpeoplearewaitingoutside.Whenthesubjectisanounprecededby"aportionof,aseriesof,apileof,apanelof",theverbinvariablytakesthesingularform,whatevertheformsofthenoun.Likewise,whenthesubjectisanoun,singularorplural,precededby"akind/sort/typeof"orby"thiskind/sort/typeof",theverbtakesthesingularform.If"kind/sort/typeof"isprecededby"these/those"andfollowedbyapluralnoun,theverbshouldbeplural,eg:Asubstantialportionofthereportsismissing.Aseriesofaccidentshasbeenreported.Thiskindofmanannoysme.Thattypeofcarisold-fashioned.Thesetortofmachinesareuptodate.Ifthesubjectisanounphrasecomposedof"manya+noun"or"morethanone+noun",thiskindofnounphrase,thoughnotionallyplural,istreatedassingular.Manyamanhasdonehisduty.Morethanonegame~slost.Ifthesubjectisapluralnounprecededby"anaverageof/amajorityof",theverbformisdeterminedbythenotionofthenounphrase:ifthenounheadistheword"average/majority",theverbshouldbesingular;iftheheadisthepluralnoun,theverbshouldbeplural.Compare:Anaverageof25applicationsamonthisnotunusual.3Otherproblemsofsubject-verbconcordThereareotherproblemsofsubject-verbconcordthatworthmentioning.3.1ProblemsofconcordwithanominalclauseassubjectWhenthesubjectisanominalclauseintroducedbywhat,who,which,how,why,whether,etc,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform.Butwhentwoormoresuchclausesarecoordinatedbyandorboth...and,apluralverbisrequired,eg:Whatcausedtheaccidentisacompletemystery.Whatcausedtheaccidentandwhowasresponsibleforitremainamysterytous.InSVCconstructionswithawhat-clauseassubject,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform.Butwhenthesubjectcomplementisplural,orwhenthewhat-clauseispluralinmeaning,theverbofthemainclausecanbeplural,eg:Whatwasrealtohimwerethedetailsofhislife.Whatareoftenregardedaspoisonousfungiaresometimessafelyedible.3.2Subject-verbconcordwithanon-finiteclauseassubjectWhenthesubjectisanon-finiteclause,theverbofthemainclauseusuallytakesthesingularform.Butwhentwoormoresuchclausesarecoordinatedbyand,theverbofthemainclausetakesthesingularformwhenthesubjectreferstoonething,andthepluralformwhenthesubjectreferstoseparatethings,eg:Toclimbmountainsrequirescourage.Playingtennisisaverygoodexercise.Compare:ReadingIbsenandsolvingaquadraticequationareentirelydifferentassignments.3.3Subject-verbconcordinrelativeclausesIntheconstructionof"oneof+pluralnoun+relativeclause",theprincipleofgrammaticalconcordisgenerallyobserved.Sometimes,especiallyinBritishEnglish,inordertolayemphasison"one",theverbcanalsotakethesingularform.When"one"isprecededby"the"or"theonly",theverbcanonlybesingular.Compare:Joanisoneofthosepeoplewhogooutoftheirwaytobehelpful.JasperWhiteisoneofthoserarepeoplewhobelievesinancientmyths.Keyesistheonlyoneoftheplayerswhohaslearnedalltherules.3.4Subject-verbconcordincleft-sentencesIncleft-sentences,subject-verbconcordinthat-/who-clauseisgenerallydeterminedbythenumberofthefocalelementfunctioningassubjectintheclause.Thereisonepointthatshouldbenoted:whenthefocalelementis"I",theverbTOBEinthefollowingwho-/that-clauseusuallyagreeswith"1'inbothpersonandnumber;if,ontheotherhand,thefocalelementis"me"insteadof"I",theverbTOBEinthefollowingwho-/that-clauseshouldtakethethirdpersonsingularnumber,eg:ItisIwhoamtoblame.Itismethatistoblame.3.5Subject-verbconcordinexistentialsentencesInexistentialsentences,subject-verbconcordisgenerallydeterminedbythenumberofthe"notionalsubject",butininformalstyle,especiallyinspokenlanguage,theverboftenagreeswiththe"formalsubject"andtakesthesingularform,eventhoughthenotionalsubjectisplural.Whenthenotionalsubjectisacoordinateconstruction,theverbformgoeswiththefirstcoordinateelementofthenotionalsubject,singularorplural,eg:Thereisanoteleftonthedesk.Therearethreeroutesyoucantake.There'smoregraceandlesscarelessness.There'satongspringboard,andthreeraftsatvaryingdistancesfromtheshore.IVAssignment1.Exercise2B2.Exercise3CLecture6+7NounandNounPhraseITeachingobjectives:1.Knowtheclassificationofnouns;2.Understandthenumberformsofnounsandpartives.IITeachingdifficulties:1.Singularinvariables2.Pluralinvariables3.Irregularplurals.IIITeachingprocedures1.NounclassesConcretenounsvs.abstractnouns; propernounsvs.commonnouns; countablenounsvs.massnouns2.NumberRegularpluralformswillbeleftoutfromdiscussion.Ourattentionwillbefocusedonsomemoreproblematicissues:nounsthatareinvariablysingularorpluralandnounsthattakeirregularpluralforms.2.1.Singularinvariables2.1.1.PropernounsPropernouns,becauseoftheiruniquereference,arenormallyinvariablesingularsevenwhensomeofthesenounsappearinthe“pluralform”:TheUnitedStateshastwoofficiallanguages:EnglishandSpanish.TheUnitedNationshasitsheadquarterslocatedinNewYork.However,theNetherlandsandthePhilippinescanbeeithersingularorplural:TheNetherlandsis/arefamousfortwothings:tulipsandfootball.ThePhilippinesis/areandislandcountry.Therearesomeothergeographicalpropernounswithpluralformwhichareusuallyorexclusivelytreatedasplurals:theAlps,theRockies,theHighlands,theBalkans,theMaldives(爾代夫(群島)[亞洲島國]),theBermudas,theHimalayas,NiagaraFalls,etc.Namesofpeoplearegenerallysingularexceptthatreferencespointstoafamily.TheJonesesarecomingtothepartythisevening.TheBlacksareawayonholidays.Orthattwoormorepersonswiththesamenamearepossiblyreferredto:A:MayIspeaktoMark,please?B:WehavetwoMarkshere.TheyoungMarkortheoldMark?2.1.2.MassnounsMassnouns,whetherabstractorconcrete,aregenerallysingular.Theyincludecertainnounsendingin–s,someofwhichareonlyoccasionallyusedaspluralswhentheyexpressintensity,greatquantityandhavealiteraryflavor:ThesandsofSaharaSailingonthegreatwaters2.2.PluralinvariablesThefollowingnounsarealmostalwaystreatedaspluralsNamesoftoolsandarticlesofdressconsistingoftwoequalparts:Binoculars,calipers,compasses,flares,glasses,jeans,pants,trousers,pajamas,spectacles,shorts,suspenders,tights,scissors,tongs,shades,etc.Somecollectivenouns:cattle,clergy(occasionallytreatedasasingular),gentry,people,police,vermin,etc.Geographicalnamesofmountainranges,waterfalls,groupsofislands:see2.1.1.3)Othernounsendingin–s:archives,arms,belongings,clothes,congratulations,contents,customs,dregs,earnings,fireworks,funds,goods,greens,lodgings,minutes,outskirts,pains,premises,savings,spirits,stairs,suburbs,surroundings,thanks,tropics,wages,etc.2.3.IrregularpluralsThegeneraltypesofirregularpluralsinclude:nounswithirregularspellingorpronunciationorboth,nounswithzeropluralsandnounsthattakeforeignplurals.2.3.1.Irregularspelling/pronunciationPluralsderivedfromOldEnglish:child-children,foot-feet,man-men,mouse-mice,ox-oxen,penny-pence-pennies,etc.Pluralsderivedfromnounsendingwithsound/f/andspelling–for–fe:Regular:belief-beliefs,proof-proofs,etc.Irregular:calf-calves,knife-knives,leaf-leaves,etc.Pluralsderivedfromnounsendinginspelling–o:Regular:kilos,photos,radios,studios,etc.Irregular:heroes,potatoes,Negroes,tomatoes,etc.Bothformspossible:cargoes/cargos,mosquitoes/mosquitos,volcanos/volcanoes,etc.2.3.2.ZeropluralsSomeanimals:deer,sheep,cattle,etc.Nationalitiesin–ese:Chinese,Japanese,etc.Nounsbothsingularandpluralendingin–s/-es:barracks,corps,crossroads,works,species,means,etc.2.3.3.ForeignpluralsWordsthatareborrowedfromotherlanguagesoftenhaveforeignplurals.Manysuchwordshavebenaturalizedandsotaketheregularpluralsfor,buttherearestillsomethatstillkeepforeignpluralforms:Nounsendingin–a(Latin):alumna-alumnae,formula-formulae,antenna-antennae(ofinsects)-antennas(aerials),etc.Nounsendingin–eau:bureau-bureaux/bureaus,plateau-plateaus/plateaux,etc.(Notethatthesenounsmanyalsoappearintheregular–sform.)Nounsendingin–is(Greek):analysis-analyses,axis-axes,basis-bases,etc.Nounsendingin–on(Greek):criterion-criteria,phenomenon-phenomena,etc.Nounsendingin–um(Latin):bacterium-bacteria,curriculum-curricula,stadium-stadiums/stadia,etc.(Notethatdata,originallythepluralformofdatum,isnowusedasbothpluralandsingularandthatdatumisbecomingrare.)Nounsendingin–us(Latin):alumnus-alumni,cactus-cacti,stimulus-stimuli,etc.2.3.4.PluralcompoundsThreetendenciesareatworkintheinflectionofcompoundsforplural:pluralizethelastelement,pluralizethefirstelementandpluralizeboththefirstandthelastelement.Thelastelementplural(regular):armchairs,babysitters,crime-reporters,fly-overs,pickpockets,etc.Thefirstelementplural(esp.whenthelastelementisapostmodifieroraparticle):coats-of-mail,commanders-in-chief,men-of-war,mothers-in-law,Queens-of-England,etc.Bothelementsplural(esp.whenthecompoundisappositional同位格的):gentlemenfarmers,menfriends,menserv