English_Teaching_英語教學法教程考試必考的知識點Unit1Furtherreading,ApproachesandMethodsinLanguageTeaching:JackC.Richards&TheodoreS.Rodgers外語教學與研究出版社，2000,Howtobeagoodteacher:Scrivener,J.LearningTeaching.Heinemann1994,Chapter1,CommunicativeLanguageTeaching:Nunan,D.DesigningTasksfortheCommunicativeClassroom.CambridgeUniversityPress1989,Howtoplanlessons:Ur,P.ACourseinLanguageTeaching.CambridgeUniversityPress.1996.Module15,ClassroomManagement:Gower,R.,Phillips,D.andWalters,S.TeachingPracticeHandbooknewedition.Heinemann1995,Howtoteachlistening:Underwood,M.TeachingListeningSkill.Longman.1989.,Howtoteachspeaking:Harmer,J.ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching.newedition.Longman1991.Chapter8,Howtoteachreading:Grellet,F.DevelopingReadingSkills.CambridgeUniversityPress.1981Harmer,J.ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching.newedition.Longman.1991.Chapter10Howtoteachwriting:Tribble,C.Writing.OxfordUniversityPress.1996.Harmer,J.ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching.newedition.Longman1991.Chapter7&8,Howtousetextbooks:Grant,N.MakingtheMostofYourTextbook.Longman.1987.,KeithJohnson.AnIntroductiontoForeignLanguageLearningandTeaching.ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.2003,《外語教學法叢書》20本ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPressThestructuralviewThestructuralviewseeslanguageasalinguisticsystem.Thesystemoflanguage=thesystemofsounds+thesystemofwords+thesystemofgrammarThefunctionalview(Thefunctional-notionalview)ThefunctionalviewseeslanguageasalinguisticsystemandasameansfordoingthingsTheinteractionalviewTheinteractionalviewseeslanguageasacommunicativetool(tobuildupandmaintainrelationsbetweenpeople).,Theinteractionalviewseeslanguageprimarilyasmeansforestablishingandmaintaininginterpersonalrelationshipsandforperformingtransactionsbetweenindividuals.,ThetargetoflanguagelearningislearningtoinitiateandmaintainconversationwithotherpeopleTwothingsareneededforcommunication,Rulesoflanguageform(grammar&vocabulary),Rulesoflanguageuseinacontext(Isitappropriatetousethislanguageiteminthiscontext?)ViewsonLanguageLearningBehaviorismThreebasicbehavioristideasaboutlearning,1.Conditioning(Pavlovandthedribblingdogs):learningisseenasaquestionofdevelopingconnections(knownasstimulus-responsebonds)betweenevents.,2.Habitformation(Skinnerandthesportypigeon),3.Theimportanceoftheenvironment(writingonacleanslate)organism:personoranimalthatdoesthelearning,Environment:anevent,asituationoranotherperson(teacherorparent)EnvironmentOrganismTheCognitivetheory,Chomsky:,Languageisnotaformofbehaviour.Itisanintricate(complicated)rule-basedsystem.(Languageisrule-governed.),Thereareafinitenumberofgrammaticalrulesinthesystemandwithknowledgeoftheserulesaninfinitenumberofsentencescanbeproduced.(Languageisgenerative.)Studentsshouldbeaskedtothinkratherthansimplyrepeat.Constructivistviews,Learningisaprocessinwhichthelearnerconstructmeaningbasedonhis/herownexperiencesandwhathe/shealreadyknows.,Constructivismisabroadtermusedbyphilosophers,curriculumdesigners,psychologists,educators,andothers.Mostpeoplewhousethetermemphasize“thelearner?scontributiontomeaningandlearningthroughbothindividualandsocialactivity”.Socialconstructivism,Learningisbestachievedthroughthedynamicinteractionbetweentheteacherandthelearnerandbetweenlearners.Vygotsky?stheory,Vygotsky?conceptofthezoneofproximaldevelopment:achildcansolveaproblemwiththehelp(scaffolding)ofanadultormoreablepeer.,Vygotsky?sworkformedthebasisforthecooperativelearningprograms.Heevenrecommendedpairingmorecompetentstudentswithlesscompetentstudentstoelevatethelatter?scompetence.scaffolding,Scaffolding:thetechniqueofchangingthelevelofsupportoverthecourseofateachingsession;amore-skilledperson(teacherormore-advancedpeerofthechild)adjuststheamountofguidancetofitthestudent?scurrentperformance.Whenthetaskthestudentislearningisnew,theteachermightusedirectinstruction.Asthestudent?scompetenceincreases,lessguidanceisprovided.,Thinkofscaffoldinginlearninglikethescaffoldingusedtoconstructabuilding.Thescaffoldingprovidessupportwhenneeded,butitisadjustedandgraduallyremovedasthebuildingapproachescompletion.Researchersfoundthatwhenscaffoldingisusedbyteachersandpeersincollaborativelearning,students?learningbenefits.TeachinggrammarGrammarteachingdependsoncertainvariables(learnerandinstructional)inthelanguageteaching/learningcontextGrammarpresentationmethods-deductivemethod:reliesonreasoning,analyzingandcomparingteachingprocedure:teacher?sexampleontheboard,teacher?sexplanationoftherules(instudent?snativelanguage),student?spracticeapplicationoftherules.Advantages:goodforselectedandmotivatestudents;savetimetoexplaincomplexrules;increasestudents?confidenceinexamination.Disadvantages:grammaristaughtisolatedly;littleattentionispaidtomeaning;thepracticeisoftenmechanical-inductivemethod:teachingprocedure;authenticlanguagepresentation(givegrammarexamples);letstudentsobserve,analyse,compareexamples;helpstudentsinductgrammarrules,Advantages:inspirestudents?thinkingactivities;motivatestudents?learninginterests;grammaristaughtincontext.Disadvantages:thepresentationofgrammarismorecomplexandtimeconsumption;grammarisnottaughtdirectly;somerulescannotbeinducedeasily-guideddiscoverymethod:Similartotheinductivemethod:thestudentsareinducedtodiscoverrulesbythemselves(similar);theprocessofthediscoveryiscarefullyguidedandassistedbytheteacherandtherulesarethenelicitedandtaughtexplicitly.(different)Implicitandexplicitknowledge:Implicitknowledgereferstoknowledgethatunconsciouslyexistsinourmind,whichwecanmakeuseofautomaticallywithoutmakinganyeffort;Explicitknowledgereferstoourconsciousknowledgeaboutthelanguage.Wecantalkaboutit,analyseitandapplyitinconsciousways.Learningandacquiring(secondlanguageacquisitiontheory)Thesynthesisapproachestogrammaticalpedagogy:Collocational:grammarshouldbebuiltoncollocationalrelationsbetweenindividuallexicalitemsandtheirsubcategories.Constructive:one?sknowledgeofgrammarisbuiltbitbybit,whichcloselymodelthewaylanguageislearnedandused.Contextual:Elementsandstructuresaretaughtinrelationtotheircontext.Syntacticandlexicalchoicesareexplicitlyrelatedtopragmaticones,andtosocialandculturalcontexts.Contrastive:grammarinvolvesdrawingthelearner?sattentiontocontrastthedifferencesbetweenthetargetlanguageandotherlanguage.Grammarpractice:Pre-learning;Volumeandrepetition:Success-orientation.Heterogeneity.Teacherassistance.Interest1.Mechanicalpractice:activitiesthatareaimedatformaccuracy.Bydoingmechanicalpractice,studentspayrepeatedattentiontoakeyelementinastructure.formofpractice:Substitutionandtransformationdrills2.Meaningfulpracticethefocusisontheproduction,comprehensionorexchangeofmeaningthoughthestudents“keepaneyeon”thewaynewlylearnedstructuresareusedintheprocess.3.Usingpromptsforpractice:Thepromptscanbepictures,mimes,tables,chartsorkeywords,etc.AgoodpresentationshouldincludebothoralandwrittenandformandmeaningVisualmaterialscanaidcomprehensionIt?stheteacher?sinvolvementandhisorherabilitytopersonaliseteachingandmakeactivitiesengagingthatoftenpromotessuccessfullearning.TeachingvocabularyThefirstquestionneedtoknowiswhatdoesknowingawordinvolve.Aword:knowingitspronunciationandstress;spellingandgrammaticalproperties;meaning;howandwhentouseittoexpresstheintendedmeaning(freestandingandboundmorphine)Vocabularylearninginvolvesateleasttwoaspectsofmeaning:theunderstandingofitsdenotativeandconnotativemeaning;andunderstandingthesenserelationsamongwordsDenotativemeaningofawordoralexicalitemreferstothosewordsthatweusetolabelthingsasregardsrealobjectsConnotativemeaningofawordrefersto?theattitudesoremotionsofalanguageuserinchoosingawordandtheinfluenceoftheseonthelistenerorreader?sinterpretationoftheword.Thiswordsthatmayexpressapositiveornegativeattitudeorsubtlefeelingstowardsomething.Collocationsreferstowordsthatco-occurwithhighfrequencyandhavebeenacceptedaswaysfortheuseofwords.Itisbelievedthatteachingwordcollocationsisamoreeffectivewaythanjustteachingonesinglewordatatime.Synonymsrefertoitemsthatmeanthesame,ornearlythesame.Antonymsrefertoitemsthatmeantheoppositeofaword.HyponymsrefertowordswhichcanbegroupedtogetherunderthesamesuperordinateconceptReceptiveandProductivevocabularyPassivevocabulary:thewordstheyknow.Activevocabulary:thewordstheyuseSothejobfortheteacheristoguidethestudentstothosewordswhichwillhelpthemtoaddtotheiractivevocabularies,andtodistinguishthosewordsfromthemuchlargernumberofpassiveitems.Atthebeginningoflanguagelearning,allthewordswhicharetaughtmustbeacquiredforactiveuse,later,atintermediateandadvancedlevels,mostofthewordsstudentsmeetwillonlybeneededforpassiveuse.Waysofconsolidatingvocabulary:labelling,spotthedifference,descibeanddraw,playagame,usewordseries,wordbingo,wordassociation,findasynonymsandantonym,categories,usingwordnet-work,usingtheInternetresourcesforsomeideasDevelopingvocabularybuildingstrategies:reviewregularly,guessmeaningfromcontext,Organizevocabularyeffectively,usingadictionary,managestrategyuseTeachinglisteningListeningproblems:lackofteachingmaterials,bothwithprintmaterialsandaudioorvideotapes,lackofequipmentinsomeschools;lackofreal-lifesituations:lackofprofessionalqualifiedinstructorsAnumberofpeoplehavefrequentlymadethepointthatofthetotaltimeanindividualisengagedincommunication:approximately9%isdevotedtowriting,16%toreading,30%tospeaking,45%tolisteningListeningandreadingarereceptiveskills,butlisteningcanbemoredifficultthanreading.DifferentspeakersproducethesamesoundsindifferentwaysThelistenerhaslittleornocontroloverthespeedoftheinputofspokenmaterial;Spokenmaterialisoftenheardonlyonceandinmostcases，wecannotgobackandlistenagainaswecanwhenweread;Thelistenercannotpausetoworkoutthemeaningoftheheardmaterialascanbedonewhenreading;Speechismorelikelytobedistortedbythemediawhichtransmitsoundsorbackgroundnoisethatcanmakeitdifficulttohearclearly;Thelistenersometimeshastodealsimultaneouslywithanothertaskwhilelistening,suchasformalnote-taking,writingdowndirectionsormessagesfromtelephonecalls,oroperatingwhilelisteningtoinstructions.Characteristicsofthelisteningprocess,formalorinformal?rehearsedornon-rehearsed?canthelistenerinteractwiththespeakerornot?Listeningcharacteristics:Spontaneity,Context,visualclues,listener?sresponse,speaker?sadjustmentListeningpurpose:forsocialreasons,toobtainandexchangeinformationPrinciplesandmodelsofteachinglisteningFocusonprocess:(theyhavetohearwhatisbeingsaid,theyhavetopayattentionandconstructameaningfulmessageintheirmindbyrelatingwhattheyheartowhattheyalreadyknow;it?salsopossibletohearpeopletalkingwithoutpayingattention;wealsoknowthatifwedon?thaveenoughpreviousknowledgeofwhatisbeingsaid,it?smoredifficulttomakesenseofwhatissaid)Combinelisteningwithotherskills;Focusonthecomprehensionofmeaning;GradedifficultylevelappropriatelyDesigninglisteningactivity:giveaclearpurpose,aspecifictask,anappropriatecontextfordoingthemBottom-upmodel:Listeningcomprehensionisbelievedtostartwithsoundandmeaningrecognitions.Inotherwords,?weuseinformationinthespeechitselftotrytocomprehendthemeaning?Listenersconstructmeaningofwhattheyhearbasedonthesoundtheyhear.Top-downmodel:listeningforgistandmakinguseofthecontextualcluesandbackgroundknowledgetoconstructmeaningareemphasised.Inotherwords,listeningcomprehensioninvolves?knowledgethatalistenerbringstoatext,sometimescalled?insidethehead?information,asopposedtotheinformationthatisavailablewithinthetextitself?Insuchacase,listenerscanunderstandbetteriftheyknowsomethingaboutthespeaker,thesetting,thetopicandthepurposeofthetalk.priorknowledgeorschematicknowledge—mentalframeworksforvariousthingsandexperienceweholdinourlong-termmemoryPre-listeningactivities:aimtomotivatestudents,toactivatetheirpriorknowledge,andtoteachkeywordsorkeysentencestothestudentsbeforelisteningbeginspredicting,settingthescene,listeningforthegistandspecificinformationWhile-listening:nospecificresponses,listenandtick,listenandsequence,listenandact,listenanddraw,listenandfill,listenandtakenotesPost-listening:multiple-choicequestions,answeringquestions,note-takingandgap-filling,dictogloss(preparationdictationreconstructionanalysisandcorrection)Integratelisteningwiththepracticeofotherlanguageskills,roleplay,debate,discussion,writingbackTeachingspeakingSpeechcharacteristic:spontaneous,fulloffalsestartsrepetitionsincompletesentencesshortphrasestime-constraintspokenlanguagesfeatures:Usinglesscomplexsyntax;Takingshortcuts,(incompletesentences);Usingfixedconventionalphrases/chunks.Usingdevicessuchasfillers,hesitationdevicetogivetimetothinkbeforespeaking.Bothlearnersandteachersneedtolearntoacceptrepetitions,rephrase,hesitations,incompletesentences,fillersorpauses.thisdoesn?tmeanwedon?tencouragefluentspeaking.Intrainingstudents?speakingskills,featuresofnaturalspeechshouldbeaccepted.thisdoesn?tonlyhaveimplicationforteachingspeakingbutalsoforassessingspeaking.EncouragestudentstospeakupisthefirstandmostimportanttaskPrinciples:Balancingaccuracy-basedwithfluency-basedpractices,Contextualisingpractice,Personalisingpractice,Buildingupconfidence,Maximisingmeaningfulinteractions,HelpingstudentsdevelopspeakingstrategiesDesigningspeakingtasks:meaningfulmotivationlinguisticallyappropriatecognitivelychallengeMaximumforeigntalkevenparticipationhighmotivationrightlanguagelevelPre-communicativeactivities:structural,quasi-communicativeCommunicativeactivities:FunctionalcommunicativeandSocialinteractionRole-play:performindifferentmoods,changedifferentrolerelationship,actualwordcanbevaried,makethedialoguelongerLearnersshouldbehelpedmovefromformtousingwhatislearnedinmeaningfulcommunicationTheproblemisnothavingnothingtosaybutlackingtheopportunitytosayitTeachingreadingReadingaloudandsilentreading:Readingaloudcannotreplacesilentreadingasitinvolvesonlytheskillsofpronunciationandintonation.Realreadingabilityre-quiresthereadingskillsofskimming,scanning,predictingEffectivereading:clearpurposeinreading;readsilently;readphrasebyphrase,ratherthanwordbyword;concentrateontheimportantbits,skimtherest,andskiptheinsignificantparts;usedifferentspeedsandstrategiesfordifferentreadingtasks;perceivetheinformationinthetargetlanguageratherthanmentallytranslate;guessthemeaningofnewwordsfromthecontext,orignorethem;usebackgroundinformationtohelpunderstandthetext.Readingcomprehensionmeansextractingtherelevantinformationfromthetextasefficientlyaspossible,connectingtheinformationfromwrittenmessagewithone?sownknowledgetoarriveatanunderstanding(constructionofmeaningfromprintedorwrittenmessage)Twobroadlevelsinreading:1)arecognitiontaskofperceivingvisualsignalsfromtheprintedpagethroughtheeyes;2)acognitivetaskofinterpretingthevisualinformation,relatingthereceiveinformationwithreader?sownknowledgeVocabularyrole:efficientreadingbeginswithalightening-likeautomaticrecognitionofword.thisinitialprocessofaccurate,rapidandautomaticrecognitionofvocabularyfreesone?smindtouseotherresources(reasoningabilities,,knowledgeabouttopic)toconstructmeaningSightvocabulary:youcanrecognisewithbothsoundsandmeaningswithoutspecialeffortfromyourbrainFluentreadingdependsonanadequatesightvocabulary,ageneralknowledgeaboutthetargetlanguage,someknowledgeaboutthetopic,wideknowledgeabouttheworldandenoughknowledgeabouttexttypes.Teachingmodel:bottom-upmodeltop-downmodelinteractivemodelPre-reading:poolingexistingknowledgeaboutthetopic;predictingthecontentsofthetext,skimmingandscanningthetextorpartsofthetextforcertainpurpose;learningkeywordsandstructures(predictingsettingthesceneskimmingscanning)Whilereading:InformationpresentedinplaintextformisnotfacilitativeforinformationretentionThewaytotransferinformationfromoneformtoanotheriscalledatransitiondeviceReadingcomprehensionquestionsQuestionsforliteralcomprehension.directlyandexplicitlyavailableinthetext.Usuallyansweredinthewordsofthetextitself.Questionsinvolvingreorganizationorreinterpretation.obtainliteralinformationfromvariouspartsandputitto-getherorreinterpretQuestionsforinferences.Thistypeofquestionsrequirestudentstoconsiderwhatisimpliedbutnotexplicitlystated.Questionsforevaluationorappreciation.mostsophisticatedques-tionswhichinvolvemakingajudgmentaboutthetextintermsofwhatthewriteristryingtoconvey.Questionsforpersonalresponse.Theanswerstothesequestionsdependmostonthereader?sreactiontothecontentofthetext.Post-reading:discussionquestions,reproducingthetext,roleplay,gap-filling,discussion,retelling,writingTheteachingofreadingshouldfocusondevelopingstudents?readingskillsandstrategiesandonmaintainingstudents?motivationforreadingTeachingwritingWritingpurpose:getthingsdoneandtoform;maintainsocialrelationships;giveavoiceforshystudents;lessthreateningfor