Chapter01-WhatDoWeMeanbyLeadership?

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Copyright2022?McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.

Part1:LeadershipIsaProcess,NotaPosition

Leadership

Followers

Leader

Situation

Chapter1:WhatDoWeMeanbyLeadership?

Part1Overview

Ifanysingleideaiscentraltothisbook,itisthatleadershipisaprocess,notaposition.

Theentirefirstpartofthisbookexploresthisidea.

Chapteronedefinesleadershipandexploresitsrelationshiptoconceptssuchasmanagementandfollowershipandtheinteractionalframeworkisintroduced.

Theinteractionalframeworkisbasedontheideathatleadershipinvolvescomplexinteractionsbetweentheleader,thefollowers,andthesituationstheyarein.

Theframeworkprovidestheorganizingprinciplefortherestofthebook.

Chaptertwolooksathowwecanbecomebetterleadersbyprofitingmorefullyfromourexperiences.

Partoneconcludeswithachapterfocusingonbasicleadershipskills.

Therealsowillbeacorrespondingskillschapterattheconclusionofeachoftheotherthreepartsofthebook.

LearningObjectivesforChapter01

LO01-01:Characterizethemeaningofleadership.

LO01-02:Identifycommonleadershipmyths.

LO01-03:Generalizetheinteractionalframeworkforanalyzingleadership.

LO01-04:Illustratetheinteractionalframeworkbyexaminingwomen’srolesinleadership.

LO01-05:Concludethatthereisnosimplerecipeforeffectiveleadership.

Chapter01BriefOutline

PartIIntroduction

ChapterIntroduction

WhatisLeadership?

Leadershipisbothascienceandanart

Leadershipisbothrationalandemotional

Leadershipandmanagement

LeadershipMyths

Myth:Goodleadershipisallcommonsense

Myth:Leadersareborn,notmade

Myth:Theonlyschoolyoulearnleadershipfromistheschoolofhardknocks

TheInteractionalFrameworkforAnalyzingLeadership

TheLeader

TheFollowers

TheSituation

IllustratingtheInteractionalFramework:WomeninLeadershipRoles

ThereIsNoSimpleRecipeforEffectiveLeadership

Summary

Chapter01ExtendedOutline

PartIIntroduction:LeadershipisaProcess,NotaPosition

Leadershipinvolvessomethinghappeningasaresultoftheinteractionbetweenaleaderandfollowers.

InChapter01wedefineleadershipandexploreitsrelationshiptoconceptssuchasmanagementandfollowership.

Theinteractionalframeworkisintroducedwhichprovidestheorganizingprinciplefortherestofthebook.

Chapter02looksathowwecanbecomebetterleadersbyprofitingmorefullyfromourexperiences.

Whichisnottosaythateitherthestudyorthepracticeofleadershipissimple.

PartIconcludeswithChapter03focusingonbasicleadershipskills.

Therealsowillbeacorrespondingskillschapterattheconclusionofeachoftheotherthreepartsinthisbook.

ChapterIntroduction:WhatDoWeMeanbyLeadership?

Twostudiesshowthepeople’sconfidenceingovernmental,corporate,andfinancialleadershiphasplummeted.

Yetweseestoriesofextraordinaryleadershipbyotherwiseordinarypeople.

Thetextopenswithastoryofleadershipissuesfacedafterthefamousplanecrashof1972intheAndesinvolvingmembersofarugbyteam–inspiringthebookAlivebyPiersPaulRead.

Itisataleofsurvivalandheroicstobesure,butitisalsoastoryaboutleadershipinadynamicandcriticalsituation.

Onememberoftheflight,Parrado,wasawkwardandshy,a“second-stringer”bothathleticallyandsocially.

Yet,hewastheunlikelyhero,becomingthebestlovedandmostrespectedamongthesurvivorsforhiscourage,optimism,fairness,andemotionalsupport.

Althoughthismayseemlikeanextremeandremoteexamplethatisnotusefulforeverydayleadership,itisclearthattheissuesofdealingwithpeople(allofwhomhavedifferentpersonalities,values,andmotives)inanefforttoaccomplishagoalinthefaceofadversityisnotthatuncommon.

Skillsexhibitedinsuchanenvironmentareimportantacrosssituations.

WhatisLeadership?

Researchersstudyingleadershipdisagreeonwhatleadershipis.

Mostlystemmingfromthefactthatleadershipisacomplexphenomenoninvolvingtheleader,thefollowers,andthesituation.

Someleadershipresearchershavefocusedonthepersonality,physicaltraits,orbehaviorsoftheleader;othershavestudiedtherelationshipsbetweenleadersandfollowers;stillothershavestudiedhowaspectsofthesituationaffecthowleadersact.

Somehaveextendedthelatterviewpointsofarastosuggestthereisnosuchthingasleadership.

Theyarguethatorganizationalsuccessesandfailuresoftengetfalselyattributedtotheleader,butthesituationmayhaveamuchgreaterimpactonhowtheorganizationfunctionsthandoesanyindividual,includingtheleader.

Definitionsofleadershipdifferinmanyways,andthesedifferenceshaveresultedinvariousresearchersexploringdisparateaspectsofleadership.Thereareeightlistedinthetext.

IftheAndessurvivalscenarioisappliedtoeachofthedefinitions,eachgroupofresearchersmightfocusonadifferentaspectofleadership,eachtellingadifferentstoryregardingtheleader,thefollowers,andthesituation.

Itisimportanttounderstandthatthereisnosinglecorrectdefinitionofleadership.

Thevariousdefinitionshighlightthemultitudeoffactorsaffectingleadership.

Leaderswhorisetothetopintheirorganizationsarenotalwaysthesameasthosewhohelpmaketheirorganizationsmoreeffective.

Successfulmanagers–thosepromotedquicklythroughtheranks–spendrelativelymoretimethanothersinorganizationalsocializingandpoliticking.

Andtheyspendrelativelylesstimethaneffectivemanagersontraditionalmanagementresponsibilitieslikeplanninganddecision-making.

Effectivemanagersmakerealcontributionstotheirorganization’sperformance.

Thisdistinctionisacriticalone.

Arecent10-yearstudyofwhatseparatedthe“bestofthebest”executivesfromtherestintheirorganizationsoffersthefollowinginsights:

Theseexecutivesdemonstratedexpertiseandacrosstheircareersexcelledacrossallfacetsoftheirorganization’sfunctions.

Theyknewthewholebusiness,notjustapieceofit.

Theyalsoknewandcaredaboutthepeopletheyworkedwith.

Theyformeddeepandtrustingrelationshipswithothers,includingsuperiors,peers,anddirectreports.

Relationalfailurewithcolleaguesprovedtobethequickestroutetofailureamongthesecond-bestexecutives.

Allconsidered;thedefinition“theprocessofinfluencinganorganizedgrouptowardaccomplishingitsgoals”isfairlycomprehensiveandhelpful.

ThissectionofthetextcontainsProfilesinLeadership1.1whichhighlightsSheikhZayedbinSultanAlNahyan,thefounderoftheUnitedArabEmirates(UAE).

LeadershipIsBothaScienceandanArt

Sayingleadershipisbothascienceandanartemphasizesthesubjectofleadershipasafieldofscholarlyinquiry,aswellascertainaspectsofthepracticeofleadership.

Scholarshipmaynotbeaprerequisiteforleadershipeffectiveness,butunderstandingsomeofthemajorresearchcanhelpindividualsbetteranalyzesituationsusingavarietyofperspectives.

That,inturn,cantellleadershowtobemoreeffective.

Presumingtheybelieveevidencefromresearchisavalidbasisforinformingtheirownleadershippractices.

Becauseskillsinanalyzingandrespondingtosituationsvarygreatlyacrossleaders,leadershipwillremainpartlyanartaswellasascience.

Highlight1.1raisesthequestionofwhetherleadershipshouldbeconsideredatruescienceornot.

LeadershipIsBothRationalandEmotional

Leadershipinvolvesboththerationalandemotionalsidesofhumanexperience.

Peoplearebothrationalandemotional,soleaderscanuserationaltechniquesandemotionalappealstoinfluencefollowers.

Buttheymustalsoweightherationalandemotionalconsequencesoftheiractions.

Arousedfeelingscanbeusedeitherpositivelyornegatively,constructivelyordestructively.

Somescholarssuggesttheveryideaofleadershipmayberootedinouremotionalneeds.

Beliefinthepotencyofleadership(theromanceofleadership)maybeaculturalmyththathasutilityprimarilyinsofarasitaffectshowpeoplecreatemeaningaboutcausaleventsincomplexsocialsystems.

Relatedtothismaybeatendencytoattributealeader’ssuccessprimarilyifnotentirelytothatperson’suniqueindividualqualities.

ThatideaisfurtherexploredinProfilesinLeadership1.2:BillGates’sHeadStart.

LeadershipandManagement

Tomany,thewordmanagementsuggestsonethingandleadershipsomethingelse.

Leadersarethoughttodotherightthings,whereasmanagersarethoughttodothingsright.

Herearesomedistinctionsbetweenmanagersandleaders:

Managersadminister;leadersinnovate.

Managersmaintain;leadersdevelop.

Managerscontrol;leadersinspire.

Managershaveashort-termview;leaders,along-termview.

Managersaskhowandwhen;leadersaskwhatandwhy.

Managersimitate;leadersoriginate.

Managersacceptthestatusquo;leaderschallengeit.

Withregardtotheissueofleadershipversusmanagement,theauthorsofthisbooktakeamiddle-of-the-roadposition.

Theythinkofleadershipandmanagementascloselyrelatedbutdistinguishablefunctions.

Theauthor’sviewoftherelationshipisdepictedinFigure1.1,whichshowsleadershipandmanagementastwooverlappingfunctions.

Althoughsomefunctionsperformedbyleadersandmanagersmaybeunique,thereisalsoanareaofoverlap.

InreadingHighlight1.2,doyouseemoregoodmanagementintheresponsetothe1906SanFranciscoearthquake,moregoodleadership,orboth?

AndinProfilesinLeadership1.3,youcanreadaboutleadersfromtwodifferenterasinAmericanhistory.

LeadershipMyths

Fewthingsposeagreaterobstacletoleadershipdevelopmentthancertainunsubstantiatedandself-limitingbeliefsaboutleadership.

Hereweexamineseveralbeliefs(myths)thatstandinthewayoffullyunderstandinganddevelopingleadership.

Myth:GoodLeadershipIsAllCommonSense

Thismythsaysyouonlyneedcommonsensetobeagoodleader.

Theproblem,ofcourse,istheambiguoustermcommonsense.

Thismythimpliesacommonbodyofpracticalknowledgethatanyreasonablepersonwithmoderateexperiencehasacquired.

Onechallengeofunderstandingleadershipmaybetoknowwhencommonsenseappliesandwhenitdoesnot.

Ifleadershipwerenothingmorethancommonsense,thereshouldbefew,ifany,problemsintheworkplace.

Effectiveleadershipmustbesomethingmorethanjustcommonsense.

Myth:LeadersAreBorn,NotMade

Somebelievethatbeingaleaderiseitherinyourgenesoritsnot;whileothersbelievethatlifeexperiencesmoldtheindividualandthatnooneisbornaleader.

Whichviewisright?Inasense,bothandneither.

Bothviewsarerightinthatinnatefactorsaswellasformativeexperiencesinfluencemanysortsofbehavior,includingleadership.

Yetbothviewsarewrongtotheextenttheyimplyleadershipiseitherinnateoracquired;whatmattersmoreishowthesefactorsinteract.

Researchindicatesthatmanycognitiveabilitiesandpersonalitytraitsareatleastpartlyinnate.

Sonaturaltalentsorcharacteristicsmayoffercertainadvantagesordisadvantagestoaleader–suchasheight–butitdoesnotmakethemaleader.

Myth:TheOnlySchoolYouLearnLeadershipfromIstheSchoolofHardKnocks

Somequestionswhetherleadershipcandevelopthroughformalstudy,believingitcanonlybeacquiredthroughexperience.

Formalstudyandexperiencearenotmutuallyexclusiveorantagonistic–infact,theycomplementeachother.

Formalstudycanacceleratetheprocessoflearningfromexperience.

Oneadvantageofformallystudyingleadershipisthatitprovidesavarietyofwaysofexaminingaparticularleadershipsituation.

Beingabletoanalyzeyourexperiencesfrommultipleperspectivesmaybethegreatestsinglecontributionaformalcourseinleadershipcangiveyou.

ReflectonyourownleadershipasyoureadabouttheoriginsofStarbucksinProfilesinLeadership1.4.

TheInteractionalFrameworkforAnalyzingLeadership

Perhapsthefirstresearchertoformallyrecognizetheimportanceoftheleader,follower,andsituationintheleadershipprocesswasFredFiedler.

Fiedlerusedthesethreecomponentstodevelophiscontingencymodelofleadership,atheorydiscussedinmoredetailinChapter15.

ThoughtheauthorsrecognizeFiedler’scontributions,theyoweevenmoreHollander’stransactionalapproachtoleadership.

Theauthorscalltheirapproachtheinteractionalframework.

SeveralaspectsofthisderivativeofHollander’sapproachareworthyofadditionalcomment.

First,asshowninFigure1.2,theframeworkdepictsleadershipasafunctionofthreeelements–theleader,thefollowers,andthesituation.

Second,aparticularleadershipscenariocanbeexaminedusingeachlevelofanalysisseparately.

Wecanunderstandtheprocessevenbetterifwealsoexaminetheinteractionsamongthethreeelements.

Finally,leadershipistheresultofacomplexsetofinteractionsamongtheleader,thefollowers,andthesituation.SeeHighlight1.3.

Anexampleofonecomplexinteractionbetweenleadersandfollowersisevidentinwhathavebeencalledin-groupsandout-groups.

Subordinatesbelongingtothein-groupcanbedistinguishedbytheirhighdegreeofloyalty,commitment,andtrustfelttowardtheleader.

Othersubordinatesbelongtotheout-group.

TheLeader

Thiselementexaminesprimarilywhattheleaderbringsasanindividual.

Thiscanincludeuniquepersonalhistory,interests,charactertraits,andmotivation.

Leadersarenotallalike,buttheytendtosharemanycharacteristics.

Researchshowsthatleadersdifferfromtheirfollowers.

Andeffectiveleadersdifferfromineffectiveleadersonvariouspersonalitytraits,cognitiveabilities,skills,andvalues.

Anotherwaypersonalityaffectsleadershipisthroughtemperament–eithercalmorpronetoemotionaloutbursts.

Anotherimportantaspectoftheleaderishowtheyachievedleaderstatus.

Appointedleadersmayhavelesscredibilityandgetlessloyaltyfromfollowers.

Emergentorelectedofficialsarebetterabletoinfluenceagrouptowardgoalachievementbecauseofthepowerconferredonthembytheirfollowers.

Moregenerally,aleader’sexperienceorhistorywiththeorganizationisusuallyimportanttotheireffectiveness.

Leadersselectedfromwithinanorganizationarebetterknownand,ifrespected,givenmorelatitudethananewcomer.

Finally,aleader’slegitimacymaybeaffectedbytheextenttowhichfollowersparticipatedintheleader’sselection.

Followerswithasayintheselectionofaleadertendtoidentifywiththeleader,butalsotheymayhavehigherexpectationsandmakemoredemandsofthem.

Also,isaleaderhasthesupportoftheirsuperiors,subordinatesarelesslikelytotaketheircomplaintstohigherlevels.

TheFollowers

Followersareacriticalpartoftheleadershipequation,buttheirroleisunder-appreciated,atleastinresearch.

ReadHighlight1.3toseehowtheroleoffollowershasbeenrecognizedinliterature.

Today,itseemsnaturaltoaccepttheimportantroleplayedbyfollowers.

Leadershipisasocialinfluenceprocesssharedamongallmembersofagroup.

Bothpractitionersandscholarsemphasizetherelatednessofleadershipandfollowership.

Thefollowers’expectations,personalitytraits,maturitylevels,levelsofcompetence,andmotivationaffecttheleadershipprocess.

Highlight1.4describesasystematicapproachtoclassifyingdifferentkindsoffollowersthathashadamajorimpactonresearch.

RobertKelleybelievesthatdifferenttypesoffollowerscanbedescribedintermsoftwobroaddimensions.

Onerangesfromindependent,criticalthinkingatoneendtodependent,uncriticalthinkingontheotherend.

AccordingtoKelley,thebestfollowersarethinkforthemselvesandofferconstructiveadviceorevencreativesolutions.

Theworstfollowersneedtobetoldwhattodo.

Kelley’sotherdimensionrangesfromwhetherpeopleareactivefollowersorpassivefollowersintheextenttheyareengagedinwork.

Thebestfollowersareself-starterswhotakeinitiative.

Theworstarepassive,maydodgeresponsibility,andneedconstantsupervision.

Usingthesetwodimensions,Kelleysuggestedfivebasicstylesoffollowership:

Alienatedfollowershabituallypointoutallthenegativeaspectsoftheorganizationtoothers.

Theyseethemselvesasmavericks,leadersseethemascynical,negative,andadversarial.

Conformistfollowersarethe“yespeople”oforganizations.

Dangerousiftheirorderscontradictsocietalstandardsofbehaviorororganizationalpolicy.

Pragmatistfollowersarerarelycommittedtotheirgroup’sworkgoals,buttheyhavelearnednottomakewaves.

Tendtobemediocreworkersbutmaybecomeexpertsinmasteringthebureaucraticrulesthatcanbeusedtoprotectthem.

Passivefollowersrelyontheleadertodoallthethinking.

Lackingenthusiasm,initiative,orasenseofresponsibility,passivefollowersrequireconstantdirection.

Leadersmayseethemaslazy,incompetent,orevenstupid.

Exemplaryfollowerspresentaconsistentpicturetobothleadersandcoworkersofbeingindependent,innovative,andwillingtostanduptosuperiors.

Theyapplytheirtalentsforthebenefitoftheorganizationevenwhenconfrontedwithbureaucraticstumblingblocksorpassiveorpragmatistcoworkers.

Effectiveleadersappreciatethevalueofexemplaryfollowers.

Exemplaryfollowers–highonbothcriticaldimensionsoffollowership–areessentialtoorganizationalsuccess.

Leaders,therefore,wouldbewelladvisedtoselectpeoplewhohavethesecharacteristicsand,perhapsevenmoreimportant,createtheconditionsthatencouragethesebehaviors.

Thenatureoffollower’smotivationtodotheirworkisalsoimportant.

Whenworkerssharealeader’sgoalsandvalues,theymaybemoremotivatedtoperformtheirjobwellthanthosewhosemotivationissolelymonetary.

Eventhenumberoffollowersreportingtoaleadercanhavesignificantimplications.

Otherrelevantvariablesincludefollowers’trustintheleaderandtheirdegreeofconfidencethattheyareinterestedintheirwell-being.

Anotheraspectoffollowers’relationstoaleaderisdescribedinProfilesinLeadership1.5.

Inthecontextoftheinteractionalframework,thereisnosimplelinedividingleadershipandfollowership;theymerge.

WhenastripofpaperistwistedandconnectedinthemannerdepictedinFigure1.3,ithasonlyoneside.

Thisdoesnotmeanleadershipandfollowershiparethesamething.

Idealleadersarecharacterizedashonest,competent,forward-looking,andinspiring.

Idealfollowersaredescribedashonest,competent,independent,andcooperative.

Theimportanceplacedontheleader-followerrelationshiphasundergonedynamicchange.

Onereasonisanincreasingpressureonallkindsoforganizationstofunctionwithreducedresources–meaningmanagersoftenhaveincreasingspansofcontrolandfollowershavetopickupsomeoftheleadershipfunctions.

Anotherreasonisatrendtogreaterpowersharinganddecentralizedauthority,creatinginterdependenceandincreasingtheneedforcollaboration.

Finally,thenatureofproblemsfacedisbecomingsocomplexandthechangesarebecomingsorapidthatmoreandmorepeoplearerequiredtosolvethem.

Thesetrendssuggestseveraldifferentwaysfollowerscantakeonnewleadershiprolesandresponsibilitiesinthefuture.

Followerscanbecomemoreproactiveintheirstancetowardproblems.

Followerscanplayanactiveandconstructiverolecollaboratingwithleaderstosolveproblems.

Ingeneral,makingorganizationsbetterisataskthatneedstobe“owned”byfollowersaswellasbyleaders.

Qualitiesofgoodfollowershiparestatisticallycorrelatedwithqualitiestypicallyassociatedwithgoodleadership.

Followerscancontributetotheleadershipprocessbybecomingskilledat“influencingupward.”

Followersareinthepositiontogiveleadersrelevantinformationsothatgoodsolutionsareimplemented–requiringbothgoodlistening(managers)andgoodexpressionofideas(followers).

Followerscanassumeagreatershareoftheleadershipchallengebystayingflexibleandopentoopportunities.

Earlyattentiontendedtofocusonfollowershipasarole,oftenifnotalwaysdesignatedbyatermlikesubordinate.

Incontrast,theroleofleadervirtuallyalwaysremainedthe“lead”role.

Thisisknownastheroleapproach.

Incontrast,theconstructionistapproachviewsleadershipascombinedactsofleadingandfollowingbydifferentindividuals,whatevertheirformaltitlesorpositionsinanorganizationmaybe.

Inotherwords,leadershipemergesfromtheintertwinedactsofindividualsincomplexsocialinteractionsthatmayincludetimesthe“followersmaybeleading”and“leadersmaybefollowing.”

Leadershipisco-createdthroughactsofleadingandfollowing,whoevermaybeperformingthoseacts.

Toanever-increasingdegree,leadershipmustbeunderstoodintermsofbothleadervariablesandfollowervariables,aswellastheinteractionsamongthem.

Buteventhatisnotenough—wemustalsounderstandtheparticularsituationsinwhichleadersandfollowersfindthemselves.

TheSituation

Mostearlyresearchonleadershipwasbasedontheassumptionthatleadershipisageneralpersonaltraitexpressedindependentlyofthesituationinwhichtheleadershipismanifested.

Thisview,commonlyknownastheheroictheory,hasbeenlargelydiscreditedbutforalongtimerepresentedthedominantwayofconceptualizingleadership.

Overtime,thecomplexitiesofinteractionsamongleader,follower,andsituationalvariablesincreasinglyhavebeenthefocusofleadershipresearch.

Thesituationmaybethemostambiguousaspectoftheleadershipframework.

Onefacetofthecomplexityofthesituation’sroleisexaminedinHighlight1.5.

Decision-makingrequiresamanagertosense,categorize,andrespond.

Ifthesituationissimple–predictableandorderly,rightanswersexist.

Theleader’sjobistoensurethatproperprocessesareinplace,followbestpractices,andcommunicateinclearanddirectways.

Ifthesituationiscomplex–flux,unpredictability,ambiguity,manycompetingideas,orlotsofunknowns.

Theleader’sjobistocreateenvironmentsandexperimentsthatallowpatternsofemerge;increaselevelsofinteractionandcommunication;usemethodsthatgeneratenewideasandwaysofthingamongeveryone.

Makinggooddecisionsisaboutbothwhatdecisionsyoumakeandunderstandingtheroleofthesituationinaffectinghowyoumakedecisions.

IllustratingtheInteractionalFramework:WomeninLeadershipRoles

Itisclearthatwomenaretakingonleadershiprolesingreaternumbersthaneverbefore.

Yetthepercentageofwomeninleadershippositionshasstayedrelativelystable.

Areviewofthe2019S&P500listshowsonly6percentofCEOswerewomen.

Onestudyreportedthatwhileahigherpercentageofwomenexecutivesreceiveon-the-jobmentoringthanmen,italsofoundthatmentorsofwomenexecutiveshadlessorganizationalinfluenceandcloutthandidmentorsofmalecounterparts.

Anotherstudyrevealedthatwomen’strustineachothertendstodecreasewhenworksituationsbecomemoreprofessionallyrisky,whichcouldresultinaself-imposedpromotiondisadvantage.

Yetanotherstudyofmaleandfemaleexecutivesdiscoveredthata“manager”wasdefinedbyattributesthoughtofasmasculine.

Itdoesnotappearthesituationhaschangedmuchoverthepasttwodecades.

In1990,managementstudentsintheU.S.,Germany,andGreatBritainperceivedsuccessfulmiddlemanagersintermsofcharacteristicscommonlyascribedtomenratherthantowomen.

A2011meta-analysisofstudiesofgenderstereotypingfoundatendencyforleadershiptobeviewedasculturallymasculine.

A2016reviewofresearchnotesthepersistenttendencyofgenderstereotypesthatwomenareseenasmorecommunal(kindandnurturing)butlessagentic(ambitiousanddominant)thanmen.

Oneareawhereviewsdoseemtohavechangedovertimeinvolveswomen’sperceptionsoftheirownroles.

Towomen,beingawomanandbeingamanagerarenotcontradictory.

Throughtheimpactofstereotypethreat,theperson’sawarenessofbeingjudgedbystereotypescannonethelesshaveadeleteriousimpactonperformance.

SeeHighlight1.6.

Inonestudy,researchersdocumentedthelivesandcareersof78ofthehighest-levelwomenincorporateAmerica.

Qualitativeresultsshowedthatwomenhadthesamefearsastheirmalecounterparts:theywantedthebestforthemselvesandfortheirfamilies,andtheywantedtheircompaniestosucceed–allstillhadthedrivetosucceed.

Statistically,therewasnodifferencebetweenmen’sandwomen’sleadershipstyles–theywereequallyanalytical,peopleoriented,forceful,goaloriented,empathic,andskilledatlistening.

But,womenhadsignificantlylowerwell-beingscores.

Thismaybetiedtoinadequatesupportsystemstiedtotherealitythatmanywomenremainchiefcaregiversfortheirfamilies.

Theremaybeadditionalpressuresfrombeingvisibleasprooftheorganizationhaswomenatthetop.

Theircommitmenttotheorganizationsweremoreguardedthanthatoftheirmalecounterparts.

Womenweremuchmorelikelytobewillingtotakecareerrisksassociatedwithgoingtoneworunfamiliarareasofthecompanywherewomenhadnotbeenbefore.

Avariantoftheglassceiling–theglasscliff–referstoafindingthatfemalecandidatesforanexecutivepositionaremorelikelytobehiredthanequallyqualifiedmalecandidateswhenanorganization’sperformanceisdeclining.

Researchonwomenleadersfrommedium-sized,nontraditionalorganizationshasshownthatsuccessfulleadersdon’tallcomefromthesamemold.

Suchwomenleadersencouragedparticipationandsharedpowerandinformation,butwentfarbeyondparticipativemanagementtointeractiveleadership.

Thisapproachisbasedonenhancingothers’self-worthandbelievingthebestperformanceresultswhenpeopleareexcitedabouttheirworkandfeelgoodaboutthemselves.

Someclaimthereisa“femaleadvantage”inleadershipstemmingfromtheirmorecollaborativestyle,butresearchdoesnotsupportthisbroadgeneralization.

Oneresearchercalledfororganizationstoexpandtheirdefinitionsofeffectiveleadership–tocreateawiderbandofacceptablebehavior