PAGEPAGE13Chapter1Language語(yǔ)言Designfeature(識(shí)別特征)referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Productivity(能產(chǎn)性)referstotheabilitythatpeoplehaveinmakingandcomprehendingindefinitelylargequantitiesofsentencesintheirnativelanguage.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrarinessreferstothephenomenonthatthereisnomotivatedrelationshipbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.symbol(符號(hào))Symbolreferstosomethingsuchasanobject,word,orsoundthatrepresentssomethingelsebyassociationorconvention.discreteness(離散性)Discretenessreferstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.displacement(不受時(shí)空限制的特性)Displacementreferstothefactthathumanlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsthatarenotintheimmediatesituationsofitsusers.dualityofstructure(結(jié)構(gòu)二重性)Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels,oneofsounds,theotherofmeaning,isknownasdualityofstructure.culturetransmission(文化傳播)Culturetransmissionreferstothefactthatlanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyerchangeability(互換性)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.★Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.First,languageisasystem.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesense.Thethirdfeatureoflanguageissymbolicnature. ★Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?Languagehassevendesignfeaturesasfollowing:1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement4)Arbitrariness.5)Culturaltransmission6)Dualityofstructure.7)Interchangeability.Whydowesaylanguageisasystem?Becauseelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules,andeverylanguagecontainsasetofrules.Bysystem,therecurringpatternsorarrangementsortheparticularwaysordesignsinwhichalanguageoperates.Andthesounds,thewordsandthesentencesareusedinfixedpatternsthatspeakerofalanguagecanunderstandeachother.★(Functionoflanguage.)AccordingtoHalliday,whataretheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage?Andwhatarethethreefunctionalcomponentsofadultlanguage?Hallidayusesthefollowingtermstorefertotheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage:1)Instrumentalfunction.工具功能2)Regulatoryfunction.調(diào)節(jié)功能3)Representationalfunction.表現(xiàn)功能4)Interactionalfunction.互動(dòng)功能5)Personalfunction.自指性功能6)Heuristicfunction.啟發(fā)功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7)Imaginativefunction.想象功能Adultlanguagehasthreefunctionalcomponentsasfollowing:1)Interpersonalcomponents.人際2)Ideationalcomponents.概念3)Textualcomponents.語(yǔ)篇

Chapter2Linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics(普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)與描寫語(yǔ)言學(xué))Theformerdealswithlanguageingeneralwhereasthelatterisconcernedwithoneparticularlanguage.synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics(共時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)與歷時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué))Diachroniclinguisticstracesthehistoricaldevelopmentofthelanguageandrecordsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinitbetweensuccessivepointsintime.Andsynchroniclinguisticspresentsanaccountoflanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime.theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics(理論語(yǔ)言學(xué)與應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué))Theformercopeswithlanguageswithaviewtoestablishingatheoryoftheirstructuresandfunctionswhereasthelatterisconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheconceptsandfindingsoflinguisticstoallsortsofpracticaltasks.microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics(微觀語(yǔ)言學(xué)與宏觀語(yǔ)言學(xué))Theformerstudiesonlythestructureoflanguagesystemwhereasthelatterdealswitheverythingthatisrelatedtolanguages.langueandparole(語(yǔ)言與言語(yǔ))Theformerreferstotheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhereasthelatterreferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationbyanindividualpetenceandperformance(語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用)Theformerisone’sknowledgeofallthelinguisticregulationsystemswhereasthelatteristheuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.speechandwriting(口頭語(yǔ)與書面語(yǔ))Speechisthespokenformoflanguagewhereaswritingiswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscope.linguisticsbehaviorpotentialandactuallinguisticbehavior(語(yǔ)言行為潛勢(shì)與實(shí)際語(yǔ)言行為)Peopleactuallysaysonacertainoccasiontoacertainpersonisactuallinguisticsbehavior.Andeachofpossiblelinguisticitemsthathecouldhavesaidislinguisticbehaviorpotential.syntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelation(橫組合關(guān)系與縱聚合關(guān)系)Theformerdescribesthehorizontaldimensionofalanguagewhilethelatterdescribestheverticaldimensionofalanguage.verbalcommunicationandnon-verbalcommunication(言語(yǔ)交際與非言語(yǔ)交際)Usualuseoflanguageasameansoftransmittinginformationiscalledverbalcommunication.Thewaysweconveymeaningwithoutusinglanguageiscallednon-verbalcommunication.★HowdoesJohnLyonsclassifylinguistics?AccordingtoJohnLyons,thefieldoflinguisticsasawholecanbedividedintoseveralsubfieldsasfollowing:1)Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics.2)Synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics.3)Theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.4)Microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics.Explainthethreeprinciplesbywhichthelinguistisguided:consistency,adequacyandsimplicity.1)Consistencymeansthatthereshouldbenocontradictionsbetweendifferentpartsofthetheoryandthedescription.2)Adequacymeansthatthetheorymustbebroadenoughinscopetooffersignificantgeneralizations.3)Simplicityrequiresustobeasbriefandeconomicaspossible.★Whatarethesub-branchesoflinguisticswithinthelanguagesystem?Withinthelanguagesystemtherearesixsub-branchesasfollowing:1)Phonetics.語(yǔ)音學(xué)isastudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.2)Phonology.音位學(xué)studiesaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofaspeaker’snativelanguage.3)Morphology.形態(tài)學(xué)studiesabouthowawordisformed.4)Syntax.句法學(xué)studiesaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot.5)Semantics.語(yǔ)義學(xué)studiesaboutthemeaningoflanguage,includingmeaningofwordsandmeaningofsentences.6)Pragmatics.語(yǔ)用學(xué)★Thescopeoflanguage:Linguisticsisreferredtoasascientificstudyoflanguage.★Thescientificprocessoflinguisticstudy:Itinvolvesfourstages:collectingdata,formingahypothesis,testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions.

Chapter3Phonetics語(yǔ)音學(xué)articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué))Thestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.acousticphonetics(聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué))Thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.auditoryphonetics(聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué))Thestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.consonant(輔音)Consonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairformthelanguageiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblocked,orwheretheopeningbetweenthespeechorgansissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.vowel(元音)isdefinedasaspeechsoundinwhichtheairfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayandispronouncedwithvocal-cordvibration.bilabials(雙唇音)Bilabialsmeansthatconsonantsforwhichtheflowofairisstoppedorrestrictedbythetwolips.[p][b][m][w]affricates(塞擦音)Thesoundproducedbystoppingtheairstreamandthenimmediatelyreleasingitslowlyiscalledaffricates.[tX][dY][tr][dr]glottis(聲門)Glottisisthespacebetweenthevocalcords.roundedvowel(圓唇元音)Roundedvowelisdefinedasthevowelsoundpronouncedbythelipsformingacircularopening.[u:][u][OB][O]diphthongs(雙元音)Diphthongsareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.[ei][ai][Oi][Qu][au]triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongsarethosewhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherandthenrapidlyandcontinuouslytoathirdone.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ][QuQ][auQ]laxvowels(松元音)Accordingtodistinctionoflongandshortvowels,vowelsareclassifiedtensevowelsandlaxvowels.Allthelongvowelsaretensevowelsbutoftheshortvowels,[e]isatensevowelaswell,andtherestshortvowelsarelaxvowels.1.★Howareconsonantsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?TheconsonantsinEnglishcanbedescribedintermsoffourdimensions.Thepositionofthesoftpalate.Thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration.Theplaceofarticulation.Themannerofarticulation.★Howarevowelsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors.ThestateofthevelumThepositionofthetongue.Theopennessofthemouth.Theshapeofthelips.Thelengthofthevowels.Thetensionofthemusclesatpharynx.★Whatarethethreesub-branchesofphonetics?Howdotheydifferfromeachother?Phoneticshasthreesub-branchesasfollowing:Articulatoryphoneticsisthestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.Acousticphoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.Auditoryphoneticsisthestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.★Whatarethecommonlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsandvowelsrespectively?I.Thefrequentlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsincludethefollowing:Voiced.Nasal.Consonantal.Vocalic.Continuant.Anterior.Coronal.Aspirated.II.Themostcommonphoneticfeaturesforvowelsincludethefollowing:High.Low.Front.Back.Rounded.Tense.

Chapter4Phonology音位學(xué)phonemes(音位)Phonemesareminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguage.allophones(音位變體)Allophonesarethephoneticvariantsandrealizationsofaparticularphoneme.phones(單音)Thesmallestidentifiablephoneticunitfoundinastreamofspeechiscalledaphone.minimalpair(最小對(duì)立體)Minimalpairmeanswordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.contrastivedistribution(對(duì)比分布)Iftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincontrastiveplementarydistribution(互補(bǔ)分布)Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,thentheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.freevariation(自由變異)Whentwosoundscanappearinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotcauseanychangeinmeaning,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.distinctivefeatures(區(qū)別性特征)Adistinctivefeatureisafeaturewhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.tonelanguages(聲調(diào)語(yǔ)言)Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordonationlanguages(語(yǔ)調(diào)語(yǔ)言)Intonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel.juncture(連音)Juncturereferstothephoneticboundaryfeatureswhichmaydemarcategrammaticalunits.1.★WhatarethedifferencesbetweenEnglishphoneticsandEnglishphonology?Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,whilephonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Phoneticsisthestudyoftheactualsoundswhilephonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstractdescriptionofspeechsoundsandtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatterns.Giveexamplestoillustratetherelationshipbetweenphonemes,phonesandallophones.Whenwehear[pit],[tip],[spit],etc,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare/p/.And/p/and/b/areseparatephonemesinEnglish,while[ph]and[p]areallophones.Howcanwedecideaminimalpairoraminimalset?Aminimalpairshouldmeetthreeconditions:Thetwoformsaredifferentinmeaning.Thetwoformsaredifferentinonesoundsegment.Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositionofthetwostrings.★Useexamplestoexplainthethreetypesofdistribution.Contrastivedistribution.Sounds[m]inmetand[n]innetareincontrastivedistributionbecausesubstituting[m]for[n]willresultinachangeofmeaning.Complementarydistribution.Theaspiratedplosive[ph]andtheunaspiratedplosive[p]areincomplementarydistributionbecausetheformeroccurseitherinitiallyinawordorinitiallyinastressedsyllablewhilethelatterneveroccursinsuchenvironments.Freevariation.InEnglish,theword“direct”maybepronounceintwoways:/di’rekt/and/dia’rekt/,andthetwodifferentsounds/i/and/ai/canbesaidtobeinfreevariation.What’sthedifferencebetweensegmentalfeaturesandsuprasegmentalfeatures?WhatarethesuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglish?I.1)Distinctivefeatures,whichareusedtodistinguishonephonemefromanotherandthushaveeffectononesoundsegment,arereferredtoassegmentalfeatures.2)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.3)Suprasegmentalfeaturesmayhaveeffectonmorethanonesoundsegment.Theymayapplytoastringofseveralsounds.II.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,tone,intonationandjuncture.What’sthedifferencebetweentonelanguagesandintonationlanguage?Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevelwhileintonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel★What’sthedifferencebetweenphonetictranscriptionsandphonemictranscriptions?Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallpossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciation,whilethelatterwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.

Chapter5Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)morphemes(語(yǔ)素)Morphemesaretheminimalmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.allomorphs(語(yǔ)素變體)Allomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.morphs(形素)Morphsaretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneralandaretheactualformsusedtorealizemorphemes.roots(詞根)Rootsisdefinedasthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.affixes(詞綴)Affixesaremorphemesthatlexicallydependonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords.freemorphemes(自由語(yǔ)素)Freemorphemesarethosewhichcanexistasindividualwords.boundmorphemes(粘著語(yǔ)素)Boundmorphemesarethosewhichcannotoccurontheirownasseparatewords.inflectionalaffixes(屈折詞綴)refertoaffixesthatservetoindicategrammaticalrelations,butdonotchangeitspartofspeech.derivationalaffixes(派生詞綴)refertoaffixesthatareaddedtowordsinordertochangeitsgrammaticalcategoryoritsmeaning.emptymorph(空語(yǔ)子)Emptymorphmeansamorphwhichhasformbutnomeaning.zeromorph(零語(yǔ)子)Zeromorphreferstoamorphwhichhasmeaningbutnoform.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.immediateconstituents(直接成分)Aimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelargestgrammaticalunitsthatconstituteaconstruction.Immediateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible.ultimateconstituents(最后成分)Ultimateconstituentsarethosegrammaticallyirreducibleunitsthatconstituteconstructions.morphologicalrules(形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則)Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.word-formationprocess(構(gòu)詞法)Word-formationprocessmeantherule-governedprocessesofformingnewwordsonthebasisofalreadyexistinglinguisticresources.1.★WhatisICAnalysis?ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.Howaremorphemesclassified?Semanticallyspeaking,morphemesaregroupedintotwocategories:rootmorphemesandaffixationalmorphemes.Structurallyspeaking,theyaredividedintotwotypes:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.★Explaintheinterrelationsbetweensemanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemes.Allfreemorphemesarerootsbutnotallrootsarefreemorphemes.Allaffixesareboundmorphemes,butnotallboundmorphemesareaffixes.What’sthedifferencebetweenanemptymorphandazeromorph?Emptymorphmeansamorphthathasformbutnomeaning.Zeromorphreferstoamorphthathasmeaningbutnoform.Explainthedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesintermofbothfunctionandposition.Functionally:Inflectionalaffixessevertomarkgrammaticalrelationsandnevercreatenewwordswhilederivationalaffixescancreatenewwords.Inflectionalaffixesdonotcauseachangeingrammaticalclasswhilederivationalaffixesveryoftenbutnotalwayscauseachangeingrammaticalclass.Intermofposition:Inflectionalaffixesaresuffixeswhilederivationalaffixescanbesuffixesorprefixes.Inflectionalaffixesarealwaysafterderivationalaffixesifbotharepresent.Andderivationalaffixesarealwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffixesifbotharepresent.Whataremorphologicalrules?Giveatleastfourruleswithexamples.Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.Forexample:un-+adj.->adj.Adj./n.+-ify->v.V.+-able->adj.Adj.+-ly->adv.

Chapter6Syntax句法學(xué)syntagmaticrelations(橫組關(guān)系)refertotherelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction.paradigmaticrelations(縱聚合關(guān)系)refertotherelationsbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.hierarchicalrelations(等級(jí)關(guān)系)refertorelationshipsbetweenanyclassificationoflinguisticunitswhichrecognizesaseriesofsuccessivelysubordinatelevels.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction.labeledICAnalysis(標(biāo)記法直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstructionandlabeleachconstituent.phrasemarkers(短語(yǔ)標(biāo)記法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction,andlabeleachconstituentwhileremoveallthelinguisticforms.labeledbracketing(方括號(hào)標(biāo)記法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichisappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbrackets.constituency(成分關(guān)系)dependency(依存關(guān)系)surfacestructures(表層結(jié)構(gòu))referstothementalrepresentationofalinguisticexpression,derivedfrom\o"Deepstructure"deepstructureby\o"Transformationalgrammar"transformationalrules.deepstructures(深層結(jié)構(gòu))deepstructureofalinguistic\o"Expression"expressionisatheoreticalconstructthatseekstounifyseveralrelatedstructures.phrasestructurerules(短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則)areawaytodescribeagivenlanguage's\o"Syntax"syntax.Theyareusedtobreakanatural\o"Language"languagesentencedownintoitsconstituentparts.transformationalrules(轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則)structuralambiguity(結(jié)構(gòu)歧義)Whatarethedifferencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure?Theyaredifferentfromeachotherinfouraspects:Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentenceswhiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences.Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences.Surfacestructuresarepronounceablebutdeepstructuresarenot.IllustratethedifferencesbetweenPSrulesandT-rules.1)PSrulesfrequentlyappliedingeneratingdeepstructures.2)T-rulesareusedtotransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructures.What’stheorderofgeneratingsentences?Dowestartwithsurfacestructuresorwithdeepstructures?Howdifferentlyaretheygenerated?Togenerateasentence,wealwaysstartwithitsdeepstructure,andthentransformitintoitscorrespondingsurfacestructure.Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(PSrules)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules(T-rules).What’sthedifferencebetweenacompulsoryconstituentandanoptionalone?Optionalconstituentsmaybepresentorabsentwhilecompulsoryconstituentsmustbepresent.Whatarethethreesyntacticrelations?Illustratethemwithexamples.1)Syntagmaticrelations2)Paradigmaticrelations.3)Hierarchicalrelations.

Chapter7Semantics語(yǔ)義學(xué)Lexicalsemantics(詞匯語(yǔ)義學(xué))isdefinedasthestudyofwordmeaninginlanguage.Sense(意義)referstotheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Reference(所指)meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld.Concept(概念)istheresultofhumancognition,reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Denotation(外延)isdefinedastheconstant,abstract,andbasicmeaningofalinguisticexpressionindependentofcontextandsituation.Connotation(內(nèi)涵)referstotheemotionalassociationswhicharesuggestedby,orarepartofthemeaningof,alinguisticunit.Componentialanalysis(成分分析法)isthewaytodecomposethemeaningofawordintoitscomponents.Semanticfield(語(yǔ)義場(chǎng))Thevocabularyofalanguageisnotsimplyalistingofindependentitems,butisorganizedintoareas,withinwhichwordsinterrelateanddefineeachotherinvariousways.Theareasaresemanticfields.Hyponymy(上下義關(guān)系)referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Synonymy(同義關(guān)系)referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Antonymy(反義關(guān)系)referstotheoppositenessofmeaning.Lexicalambiguity(詞匯歧義)Polysemy(多義性)referstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Homonymy(同音(同形)異義關(guān)系)referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.Sentencesemantics(句子語(yǔ)義學(xué))referstothestudyofsentencemeaninginlanguage.What’sthecriterionofJohnLyonsinclassifyingsemanticsintoitssub-branches?Andhowdoesheclassifysemantics?Intermsofwhetheritfallswithinthescopeoflinguistics,JohnLyonsdistinguishesbetweenlinguisticsemanticsandnon-linguisticsemantics.AccordingJohnLyons,semanticsisoneofthesub-branchesoflinguistics;itisgenerallydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Whataretheessentialfactorsfordeterminingsentencemeaning?1)Object,2)concept,3)symbol,4)user,5)context.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetheoryofcomponentialanalysisandthetheoryofsemantictheoryindefiningmeaningofwords?Whatarethesenserelationsbetweensentences?S1issynonymouswithS2.S1entailsS2.S1contradictsS2.S1presupposesS2.S1isatautology,andthereforeinvariablytrue.S1isacontradiction,andthereforeinvariablyfalse.S1issemanticallyanomalous.

Chapter8Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)Speechacttheory(言語(yǔ)行為理論)Cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxims(合作原則及其準(zhǔn)則)Politenessprincipleanditsmaxims(禮貌原則及其準(zhǔn)則)Conversationalimplicature(會(huì)話含義)Indirectspeechact(間接言語(yǔ)行為)Pragmaticpresupposition(語(yǔ)用學(xué)預(yù)設(shè))Relevancetheory(關(guān)聯(lián)理論)Illocutionaryact(言外行為)(Horn’s)Q-PrincipleandR-PrinciplePerfrmativeverbs(施為句動(dòng)詞)Makecommentsonthedifferentdefinitionsofpragmatics.Whatarethemaintypesofdeixis?Explainthestatement:contextissoindispensableinfullyunderstandinginterpretingthespeaker’smeaning.HowareAustin’sandSearle’sspeechacttheoriesrelatedtoeachother?What’stherelationshipbetweenCPandPP?WhatdoyouknowaboutpresuppositiontriggersinEnglish?Explainthembrieflywithexamples.Whatisostensive-referentialcommunication?Explaintheobviouspresuppositionofspeakerwhosayeachofthefollowing:Whendidyoustopbeatingyourwife?WheredidTombuythewatch?Yourcarisbroken.Whatdoyouthinkofthefollowingstatement?“Tomparticipatedinspreadingrumors”entails“Tomengagedinspreadingrumors”.

Chapter9話語(yǔ)分析text(語(yǔ)篇)=discourse語(yǔ)篇是指實(shí)際使用的語(yǔ)言單位，是一次交際過(guò)程中的一系列連續(xù)的話段或句子所構(gòu)成的語(yǔ)言整體。它可以是對(duì)話，也可以是獨(dú)白，它包括書面語(yǔ)，也包括口語(yǔ)discourse(話語(yǔ))Discourseisusedinlinguisticstorefertoanypassage,spokenorwritten,ofwhateverlength.context(語(yǔ)境)Linguisticcontextreferstothelanguagethatsurroundsoraccompaniesthepieceofutteranceordiscourseinquestion.pre-sequencesPre-sequencereferstothekindofsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactions.adjacencypairs(毗鄰對(duì))Anadjacencypairisaunitofconversationthatcontainsanexchangeofoneturneachbytwospeakers.turn-taking(話輪轉(zhuǎn)換)Turn-takingreferstothewayinwhichparticipantsofaconversationtaketurnsatspeaking.reference(所指)Referencesignalstothereaderwhatkindofinformationistoberetrieved.substitution(替代)Substitutionmeansusinganotherwordtotaketheplaceofthethingthatisbeingdiscussed.ellipsis(省略)Ellipsisistheabsenceofspecificinformationinthetext,suchomissioncanbeunderstoodfromprecedinginformationinthetext.conjunction(連詞)aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,phrasesorclausestogether.reiteration(復(fù)現(xiàn))Reiterationistherepetitionofalexicaliteminthecontextofreference.collocation(搭配)Collocationisthelexicalcohesionthatisachievedthroughtheassociationoflexicalitemsthatregularlyco-occur.Whatistherelationshipbetweendiscourseanalysisandconversationalanalysis?會(huì)話分析的目的是分析一次自然會(huì)話的語(yǔ)言學(xué)特征和會(huì)話在日常生活中的用途；而語(yǔ)篇分析是對(duì)口頭語(yǔ)和書面語(yǔ)中的句子是如何形成較大的意義單位，如段落、會(huì)話等的研究。Howdoescriticaldiscourseanalysisdifferfrompositivediscourseanalysis?ThepurposeofCDAistodisclosetheideologyhiddeninanypublicdiscourseanditsinfluenceondiscourseaswellasthecounteractiveinfluencethediscourseexertsonideology.OnecrucialdifferenceisthatCDAaimstoprovideacriticaldimensioninitstheoreticalanddescriptiveaccountsoftexts.TheaimofPDAistomakethecriticalthinkingdevelopmorehopefuldiscourses:peace,reconciliation,learningandalteration.What’sthedifferencebetweencohesionandcoherence?Cohesionisthemeanswherebyelementsthatarestructurallyunrelatedtooneanotherarelinkedtogether,throughthedependenceofoneontheotherforitsinterpretation.Coherencemeansnaturalorreasonableconnection.Inlanguagecommunication,itreferstoalogical,orderlyandaestheticalrelationshipbetweenparts,inspeech,writing,orargument.Explainthedifferencebetweenpreferredsecondpartsanddispreferredsecondparts.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.Dispreferredsecondpartshavemuchincommon.Theycontainmorematerialthanpreferredsecondpart