產業集群和網絡建設外文翻譯文獻PAGEPAGE1Ⅲ-產業集群和網絡建設外文翻譯文獻產業集群和網絡建設外文翻譯文獻(文檔含英文原文和中文翻譯)外文：CLUSTERING,NETWORKINGANDCOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEAuthor:JohnHumphrey&HubertSchmitzNationality:U.K.Derivation:Principlesforpromotingclusters&networksofSMEs,CommissionedbytheSmallandMediumEnterprisesBranchOctober1995IndustrialdistrictsinEuropeappeartohavesecuredcompetitiveadvantageinthesupplytodemandnichemarkets.Theyhavedonethisbycompetingmainlyonthebasisofquality,design,speedofinnovationandspeedofresponse.Thismightseemfarremovedfrom,forexample,thecottonknitwearclusterofTiruppurinSouthIndia.Thisclusterhasachievedgreatsuccessinexportingbasiccottontextiles,butasyetitshowslittlecapacitytomoveintohighervaluemarketniches(SwaminathanandJeyaranjan1994).AnenormousgulfremainsbetweenthesmallknitwearfirmsofTiruppurandthe‘networksoftechnologicallysophisticated,highlyflexiblemanufacturingfirms’whichPioreandSabel(1984:17)characterizeasthebasisoftheItaliansuccess.However,itwillbearguedherethatthesedifferingcasesdohaveimportantthingsincommon,andthatwhattheyhaveincommonprovidesthepotentialforclusterssuchasTiruppurtoupgradetheirfacilitiesandbecometechnologicallymoresophisticatedandmorecapableofcompetingindemandingmarkets.Whattheyhaveincommonisthecompetitiveadvantagewhichariseswhenenterpriseswhichareclusteredtogetheraredrivenforwardbytheneedsofdemandingcustomers.Theideathattherearegainsinclusteringisoldhatinindustrialeconomics.ItcanbetracedbacktoAlfredMarshall’sanalysisofindustrialdistrictsinBritain.InhisPrinciplesofEconomics(1stedition,1890),Marshallstressedtheeconomieswhich‘canoftenbesecuredbytheconcentrationofmanysmallbusinessesofasimilarcharacterinparticularlocalities’(8thedition,1920,221).Hereferstosuchgainsas‘externaleconomies’andseesthemasparticularlyrelevanttosmallfirms.TheconceptofexternaleconomiesisintroducedbyMarshallinordertodrawout(i)whyandhowthelocationofindustrymatters,and(ii)whyandhowsmallfirmscanbeefficientandcompetitive.Inhisownwords,‘wenowproceedtoexaminethoseveryimportantexternaleconomieswhichcanoftenbesecuredbytheconcentrationofmanysmallbusinessesofasimilarcharacterinparticularlocalities’(1920:221).Hereferstosuchlocalitiesas‘localizedindustry’or‘industrialdistricts’.Hedoesnotprovideadefinitionforeither,buthisexamplesmakeitclearthathemeantaclusterwithadeepinter-firmdivisionoflabour. Theconceptofexternaleconomiesisessentialtounderstandefficiencyadvantageswhichsmallfirmsderivefromclustering.Thereremains,however,theproblemthattheconceptisrestrictedtounplannedgainsorlosses.AsstatedbyMishan(1971:2),‘theessentialfeatureoftheconceptofanexternaleffectisthattheeffectproducedisnotadeliberatecreationbutanunintendedorincidentalby-productofsomeotherwiselegitimateactivity.Suchincidentaleffectsareofenormousimportanceincontemporaryindustrialdistricts,but-asstressedbyBrusco(1990),PioreandSabel(1984),Trigilia(1989)andothers-thereisalsoconsciouslypursuedjointaction.Suchjointactioncanbeoftwotypes,individualfirmscooperating(forexample,sharingequipmentordevelopinganewproduct)andgroupsoffirmsjoiningforcesinbusinessassociations,producerconsortiaandthelike.Theconceptofcollectiveefficiencybringstogethertheincidentalandconsciouslypursuedfirmsandseekstocapturetheessentialpointthatcompetitivenesscanneitherbeunderstoodnorenhancedbyfocusingonindividualfirms.Collectiveefficiencycanbedefinedasthecompetitiveadvantagesderivedfromlocalexternaleconomiesandjointaction(Schmitz1995b).Aclearunderstandingofwhatbringsaboutthiscollectiveefficiencyiscriticalforbothanalysisandpolicy.Agroupofproducersmakingsimilarthingsinthesamelocalityinitselfbringsfewbenefits.Itdoeshoweverhelpthemtospecialize;itattractssuppliersandbuyers,anditgeneratesapoolofspecializedworkers.AsshownbyRabellotti(1995b)theexternaleconomieswhichariserangefromstaticgainssuchaseasyavailabilityofinputs,todynamicgainssuchasthefastspreadofnewideasofhowtoinnovate.Beinginthesamesectorandlocationalsofacilitatestakingjointactionwhichagaincanrangefrommorestaticconcernssuchasassociationsdefendinglocalproducersindisputeswithgovernmentordynamicconcernssuchastakinggroupsoflocalproducerstoforeigntradefairsinthesearchfornewmarkets.Acommonmisconceptionisthatthestressoncollectiveefficiencymeansdenyingcompetition.Itdoesnot.Onthecontrary,rivalryisoftenparticularlysevereamongstclusteringproducers,butthisneednotstopthemfromjoiningforcestoovercomecommonbottlenecksininfrastructure,inputsupplyoraccesstodistantmarkets.Itisthecombinationofcompetitionandcooperationwhichdrivesthesearchforimprovement.Thecombinationsaremany,atypicalonebeingvariousmanufacturersengaginginclosecooperationwiththeirsuppliers(toimprovequalityandspeedydeliveryofcomponents)andthusoftenbenefitingtheirlocalrivalswhoworkwiththesamesupplier.譯文：集群、網絡和競爭優勢作者：約翰?漢弗萊&休伯特?斯克米茲國籍：英國出處：《中小型企業推動產業集群和網絡建設的原則》，由中小型企業機構委托撰寫，1995年10月工業區域在歐洲的從供應到需求的市場上表現出強有力的競爭優勢。這些競爭優勢主要表現為：根本質量、設計、創新和反應的速度。這看起來與南印度的Tiruppur紡織業集群就沒什么關系。這個集群已經在出口基本的棉紡織品上取得了巨大成功,但是它卻沒有能力進入更高價值層次的市場(斯霍米奈森和亞輪加，1994年)。一個極大的差距仍然存在于Tiruppur的小型針織品企業與皮爾羅和塞布爾(1984年:17)所描述的作為意大利成功的基礎的“高技術性網絡和高彈性制造企業”之間。然而,這里還是會產生爭議,這些不同的例子確有著重要的共同點,而這些共同點為譬如Tiruppur這樣的集群提供了升級他們設備的潛力，使他們的技術更復雜，以及有能力在需求市場上進行競爭。這些共同點在企業集團應顧客需求擴大的情況下就成為了一種比較優勢。產業聚集能產生額外利潤的想法已經是工業經濟方面的老說法了。那可以追溯到阿爾弗雷德?馬歇爾在大不列顛作出的地方性工業理論。在他的《經濟學原理》(1890年第1版)中,馬歇爾強調了“某一地區內具有相同特征的許多小企業聚集在一起”的經濟(1920年,第8版,第221頁)。他提到“外部經濟”效應，把它們看作是小型企業的特殊相關性。馬歇爾提到外部經濟的概念是為了給出(i)當地工業因素如何，以及(ii)小公司為什么、如何能有效競爭。用他自己的話來講,“我們現在進行審查那些某一地區內具有相同特征的小企業聚集在一起產生的重要的外部經濟效應(1920年，第221頁)。他稱這種現象為“地方性工業”或“工業區域”。他沒有給這兩者給出一個定義，但是從他的案例可以清楚地看出，他指的是在企業內部勞動力高度分工的產業集群。外部經濟的概念是了解小型企業從機群獲得有效優勢本質所在。然而,此外這個效應還存在著額外損益的問題。依照米尚(1971年:2)的陳述“外部經濟效益的本質特征是,高效的生產不是一種有計劃的創造，而是由一些無意識或者偶然的合理行為所產生的。這樣偶然效應對當代工業區域有極大的重要性,但是正如布魯斯克(1990年)、皮爾羅和塞布爾(1984年)、鵲格利亞(1989年)，和其他人所說，在這一系列行為中必然存在有意識的追求。這一系列行為有兩種類型：個別企業合作(例如,共享設備或開發一個新產品)，以及一些企業組成商業協會、生產商財團等等。集合效應帶來偶然的和友誼是追求的企業，并尋求既不是已知的也不是被個別企業放大的競爭力的本質所在。集合效應被定義為本地外部經濟和一系列行為的比較優勢(斯克米茲1995年b)。顯而易見，是什么帶來了這種集合效應在分析中和政策上都是有爭議的。一群生產商在同一個地區生產類似的產品所帶來的效益是很小的。集合效應能產生專業化分工；吸引供應商和買家,培養專業的熟練工人群。按瑞羅伯特所解釋的(1995年b)外部經濟效應是包括靜態收益，如簡單的投入，和動態收益，如如何革新的新想法產生的速度。在同一個地區、同一個領域，以及利用相同的設備來進行的一系列活動，并且也是包括靜態關系，譬如協會為保護地方生產商政府發生爭執，和動態關系，譬如使當地生產商進入國際貿易領域，以尋求新的市場。共同的誤解是,人們認為集合效應意味著否認競爭。其實，正好相反,競爭在產業聚集的生產商中往往更加激烈,但這不能阻止他們以合作來克服在基礎設施、投入、進入遠方市場上的共同瓶頸。這是一種既競爭又合作的共同推動產業提升的組合。組合有許多種,一個典型就是各種各樣的制造商與他們的供應商密切合作(改進質量和加快各組件的交付)，并且這樣一來，他們在當地的與其有著相同的供應商的競爭者也會從中受益。外文：LESSONSFROMDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESAuthor:JohnHumphrey&HubertSchmitzNationality:U.K.Derivation:Principlesforpromotingclusters&networksofSMEs,CommissionedbytheSmallandMediumEnterprisesBranchOctober1995Thepurposeofthissectionistoexplorehowcollectiveefficiencycanbefosteredindevelopingcountries.ThisisnotdonebyhypotheticalreasoningbutbydrawingonrealcaseswhichgiveinsightsonhowpublicpolicycanpromoteclusteringandnetworkingofSMEs.Thereis,ofcourse,nowasubstantialexperienceinpoliciesforSMEsindevelopingcountries.Whilerarelyfocusedoncollectiveefficiency,agooddealofprogresshasbeenmadeoverrecentyears,notablyintwoareas:(1)reducingthelargefirmbiasintheoveralllegalandpolicyframework:whilenotalwayspractiseditisawellrecognizedpriority(LiedholmandMead1987;Mead1995;Stewart1989;Young1993);(2)channellingcredittoSMEs:successfullendingschemestendtobebasedlocally,havedecentralizeddecisionmaking,screenloanrequestsonthebasisofcharacteroftheentrepreneurandprojectfeasibility(ratherthancollateral),chargeinterestrateshighenoughtocoveroperatingexpenses,andsometimesusepeerpressureforrepayment(Levitsky1986;LiedholmandMead1987;OteroandRhyne1994;SanyalandPradhan1992).Lessprogresshasbeenmadeinnonfinancialassistance.Mostattemptstoprovidesuchassistancetendtosufferfromthreedeficiencies.First.,theyaretoosupplyoriented-thatis,overlyfocusedoninputsforproduction(skills,technology,rawmaterials)andnotsufficientlyconcernedwithwhowouldbuytheoutputs.Second,theyarerarelysustainable.Thishastwocomponents:thehighcostinreachingouttoamultitudeofSMEsandthelowconcernwithcostrecoveryforsupportservices.Third,theyhaveatbestaone-offeffectontheperformanceoftheassistedenterprisebutrarelyleadtoacapacityforself-helpandcontinuousupgrading.TheTripleCapproachpresentedinthispapertriestoovercomesomeofthosedeficiencies.However,itisnotjustaboutatypeofintervention,butratheritconcernsaparticularconfigurationofSMEs,oneinwhichtheyclusterornetwork.Thisiswhy,beforeplungingfurtherintopolicy,weneedtoestablishwhetherindevelopingcountriesthereisfertilegroundforthenewapproach,inotherwords,whetherclusteringisofrelevancetotheorganizationofmanufacturingindevelopingcountries.1.CLUSTERINGINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESTheinternationalattentiongiventoclustersowesmuchtotheEuropean,especiallyItalian,experience.Thequestionaddressedinthissectionishowcommonclustersareindevelopingcountries.Statisticsarenotavailableforthispurpose,butabriefoverviewcanbeprovided-basedonareviewbyNadviandSchmitz(1994),updatedforthispaper.Themainconclusionisthatclusteringseemscommoninawiderangeofcountriesandsectors.SomeclustersinLatinAmericaandAsiahaveacquiredgreatdepthintermsoftheconcentrationofspecializedsuppliersandsupportbodies.AmongthoseforwhichstudiesareavailablearethemetalworkingandtextileindustriesofLudhianaintheIndianPunjab(Tewari1990;1992);theindustryofTiruppurinTamilNadu(Cawthorne1990,1995);thediamondindustryofSuratinGujrat(Kashyap1992);theengineeringandelectronicsclusterofBangaloreinKarnataka(Holmstr?m1993);thefootwearclustersofAgrainUttarPradesh(Knorringa,1993)theSinosValleyinBrazil(Schmitz1995a),TrujilloinPeru(Tavara,1993;SanMartinBaldwinetal.1994),andLeonandGuadalajarainMexico(Rabellotti1993,1995b);theKoreantextileclusterinDaegu(Cho1994);sportsgoodsandsurgicalequipmentinSialkot,cutleryinWazirabadandelectricalfansinGujratinPakistan(Nadvi1992;1995).InAfricanclusters,theinterfirmdivisionoflabourandinstitutionalsupporttendtobelessdeveloped,asobservedinthemetalworking,furnituremaking,garmentandotherclustersinKenya,ZimbabweandTanzania(Rasmussen1991;Sverrisson1993;McCormick1994).Whileprimarilyanurbanphenomena,clusteringcanalsobeafeatureofruralindustrialisation,asinIndonesiawhereonecanfindthespecializationofentirevillages(Weijland1994),forexample,themanufactureofrooftiles(Sandee,1994)orrattanfurnitureinJava(Smyth1992).Withintheurbanarena,clusterslocatedinintermediatetownsseemtohavebeenparticularlysuccessful,asindicatedbytheirgrowthrecordsandabilitytocompeteinexportmarkets.Incontrasttoclustersinsmall-andmedium-sizedtowns,thoseinmajorcitiestendtobelessrootedhistoricallyandhavesometimesemergedfrominformalself-employmentcopingstrategiesofthepoor.Despitethat,manysuchclustersdisplayagrowthpotentialthatgoesbeyondinformalsurvivalstrategiesandindicateslocalizedcompetitivenessbasedonincreasingspecialisationamongstsmallfirms;examplesarethemetalandrepairworkshopsintheTakoradistrictofLima,Peru(Villaran,1993),andSuame,theindustrialshantysuburbofKumasi,Ghana(Dawson1992).Thesearejustsomeoftheexampleswhichcanbeidentifiedintherecentliteratureandwhichsuggestthatclusteringisofsignificancetotheindustrialorganizationofsmall-scalemanufacturingindevelopingcountries.譯文：從發展中國家得出的結論作者：約翰?漢弗萊&休伯特?斯克米茲國籍：英國出處：《中小型企業推動產業集群和網絡建設的原則》，由中小型企業機構委托撰寫，1995年10月這部分的目的是揭示集合效應在發展中國家是如何運作的。這里不是以假設，而是用基于公共政策如何推動中小型企業產業集群及網絡發展的真實的案例來說明。當然，現在發展中國家在對中小型企業的政策上有一套正確的經驗總結。雖然很少被關注，但是近年來，集合效應取得了很大的進步，主要表現在兩個方面：（1）降低大型企業在整個法律和政策中偏好的影響：在被公認的優先權下，它不總是正確的（里德侯和米德，1987年；米德，1995年；斯沃特，1989年；楊，1993年）；（2）