鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻PAGE1中英文資料翻譯1外文翻譯1.1ReinforcedConcretePlainconcreteisformedfromahardenedmixtureofcement,water,fineaggregate,coarseaggregate(crushedstoneorgravel),air,andoftenotheradmixtures.Theplasticmixisplacedandconsolidatedintheformwork,thencuredtofacilitatetheaccelerationofthechemicalhydrationreactionlfthecement/watermix,resultinginhardenedconcrete.Thefinishedproducthashighcompressivestrength,andlowresistancetotension,suchthatitstensilestrengthisapproximatelyonetenthlfitscompressivestrength.Consequently,tensileandshearreinforcementinthetensileregionsofsectionshastobeprovidedtocompensatefortheweaktensionregionsinthereinforcedconcreteelement.Itisthisdeviationinthecompositionofareinforcesconcretesectionfromthehomogeneityofstandardwoodorsteelsectionsthatrequiresamodifiedapproachtothebasicprinciplesofstructuraldesign.Thetwocomponentsoftheheterogeneousreinforcedconcretesectionaretobesoarrangedandproportionedthatoptimaluseismadeofthematerialsinvolved.Thisispossiblebecauseconcretecaneasilybegivenanydesiredshapebyplacingandcompactingthewetmixtureoftheconstituentingredientsareproperlyproportioned,thefinishedproductbecomesstrong,durable,and,incombinationwiththereinforcingbars,adaptableforuseasmainmembersofanystructuralsystem.鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共1頁，當前為第1頁。Thetechniquesnecessaryforplacingconcretedependonthetypeofmembertobecast:thatis,whetheritisacolumn,abean,awall,aslab,afoundation.amasscolumns,oranextensionofpreviouslyplacedandhardenedconcrete.Forbeams,columns,andwalls,theformsshouldbewelloiledaftercleaningthem,andthereinforcementshouldbeclearedofrustandotherharmfulmaterials.Infoundations,theearthshouldbecompactedandthoroughlymoistenedtoabout6in.indepthtoavoidabsorptionofthemoisturepresentinthewetconcrete.Concreteshouldalwaysbeplacedinhorizontallayerswhicharecompactedbymeansofhighfrequencypower-drivenvibratorsofeithertheimmersionorexternaltype,asthecaserequires,unlessitisplacedbypumping.Itmustbekeptinmind,however,thatovervibrationcanbeharmfulsinceitcouldcausesegregationoftheaggregateandbleedingoftheconcrete.鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共1頁，當前為第1頁。Hydrationofthecementtakesplaceinthepresenceofmoistureattemperaturesabove50°F.Itisnecessarytomaintainsuchaconditioninorderthatthechemicalhydrationreactioncantakeplace.Ifdryingistoorapid,surfacecrackingtakesplace.Thiswouldresultinreductionofconcretestrengthduetocrackingaswellasthefailuretoattainfullchemicalhydration.Itisclearthatalargenumberofparametershavetobedealtwithinproportioningareinforcedconcreteelement,suchasgeometricalwidth,depth,areaofreinforcement,steelstrain,concretestrain,steelstress,andsoon.Consequently,trialandadjustmentisnecessaryinthechoiceofconcretesections,withassumptionsbasedonconditionsatsite,availabilityoftheconstituentmaterials,particulardemandsoftheowners,architecturalandheadroomrequirements,theapplicablecodes,andenvironmentalreinforcedconcreteisoftenasite-constructedcomposite,incontrasttothestandardmill-fabricatedbeamandcolumnsectionsinsteelstructures.Atrialsectionhastobechosenforeachcriticallocationinastructuralsystem.Thetrialsectionhastobeanalyzedtodetermineifitsnominalresistingstrengthisadequatetocarrytheappliedfactoredload.Sincemorethanonetrialisoftennecessarytoarriveattherequiredsection,thefirstdesigninputstepgeneratesintoaseriesoftrial-and-adjustmentanalyses.Thetrial-and–adjustmentproceduresforthechoiceofaconcretesectionleadtotheconvergenceofanalysisanddesign.Henceeverydesignisananalysisonceatrialsectionischosen.Theavailabilityofhandbooks,charts,andpersonalcomputersandprogramssupportsthisapproachasamoreefficient,compact,andspeedyinstructionalmethodcomparedwiththetraditionalapproachoftreatingtheanalysisofreinforcedconcreteseparatelyfrompuredesign.鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共2頁，當前為第2頁。1.2Earthwork鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共2頁，當前為第2頁。Becauseearthmovingmethodsandcostschangemorequicklythanthoseinanyotherbranchofcivilengineering,thisisafieldwheretherearerealopportunitiesfortheenthusiast.In1935mostofthemethodsnowinuseforcarryingandexcavatingearthwithrubber-tyredequipmentdidnotexist.Mostearthwasmovedbynarrowrailtrack,nowrelativelyrare,andthemainmethodsofexcavation,withfaceshovel,backacter,ordraglineorgrab,thoughtheyarestillwidelyusedareonlyafewofthemanycurrentmethods.Tokeephisknowledgeofearthmovingequipmentuptodateanengineermustthereforespendtinestudyingmodernmachines.Generallytheonlyreliableup-to-dateinformationonexcavators,loadersandtransportisobtainablefromthemakers.Earthworksorearthmovingmeanscuttingintogroundwhereitssurfaceistoohigh(cuts),anddumpingtheearthinotherplaceswherethesurfaceistoolow(fills).Toreduceearthworkcosts,thevolumeofthefillsshouldbeequaltothevolumeofthecutsandwhereverpossiblethecutsshouldbeplacedneartofillsofequalvolumesoastoreducetransportanddoublehandlingofthefill.Thisworkofearthworkdesignfallsontheengineerwholaysouttheroadsinceitisthelayoutoftheearthworkmorethananythingelsewhichdecidesitscheapness.Fromtheavailablemapsahdlevels,theengineeringmusttrytoreachasmanydecisionsaspossibleinthedrawingofficebydrawingcrosssectionsoftheearthwork.Onthesitewhenfurtherinformationbecomesavailablehecanmakechangesinjissectionsandlayout,butthedrawinglfficeworkwillnothavebeenlost.Itwillhavehelpedhimtoreachthebestsolutionintheshortesttime.Thecheapestwayofmovingearthistotakeitdirectlyoutofthecutanddropitasfillwiththesamemachine.Thisisnotalwayspossible,butwhenitcanbedoneitisideal,beingbothquickandcheap.Draglines,bulldozersandfaceshovelsandothis.Thelargestradiusisobtainedwiththedragline,andthelargesttonnageofearthismovedbythebulldozer,thoughonlyovershortdistances.Thedisadvantagesofthedraglinearethatitmustdigbelowitself,itcannotdigwithforceintocompactedmaterial,itcannotdigonsteepslopws,anditsdumpinganddiggingarenotaccurate.Faceshovelsarebetweenbulldozersanddraglines,havingalargerradiusofactionthanbulldozersbutlessthandraglines.Theyareanletodigintoaverticalclifffaceinawaywhichwouldbedangeroustorabulldozeroperatorandimpossibleforadragline.Eachpieceofequipmentshouldbeleveloftheirtracksandfordeepdigsincompactmaterialabackacterismostuseful,butitsdumpingradiusisconsiderablylessthanthatofthesameescavatorfittedwithafaceshovel.鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共3頁，當前為第3頁。Rubber-tyredbowlscrapersareindispensableforfairlyleveldiggingwherethedistanceoftransportistoomuchtoradraglineorfaceshovel.Theycandigthematerialdeeply(butonlybelowthemselves)toafairlyflatsurface,carryithundredsofmetersifneedbe,thendropitandlevelitroughlyduringthedumping.Forharddiggingitisoftenfoundeconomicaltokeepapushertractor(wheeledortracked)onthediggingsite,topusheachscraperasitreturnstodig.Assoonasthescraperisfull,thepushertractorreturnstothebeginningofthedigtoheoptohelpthenestscraper.鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共3頁，當前為第3頁。Bowlscrapersareoftenextremelypowerfulmachines;manymakersbuildscrapersof8cubicmetersstruckcapacity,whichcarry10m3heaped.Thelargestself-propelledscrapersareof19m3struckcapacity(25m3heaped)andtheyaredrivenbyatractorengineof430horse-powers.Dumpersareprobablythecommonestrubber-tyredtransportsincetheycanalsoconvenientlybeusedforcarryingconcreteorotherbuildingmaterials.Dumpershavetheearthcontaineroverthefrontaxleonlargerubber-tyredwheels,andthecontainertipsforwardsonmosttypes,thoughinarticulateddumpersthedirectionoftipcanbewidelyvaried.Thesmallestdumpershaveacapacityofabout0.5m3,andthelargeststandardtypesareofabout4.5m3.Specialtypesincludetheself-loadingdumperofupto4m3andthearticulatedtypeofabout0.5m3.Thedistinctionbetweendumpersanddumptrucksmustberemembered.dumperstipforwardsandthedriversitsbehindtheload.Dumptrucksareheavy,strengthenedtippinglorries,thedrivertravelsinfrontlftheloadandtheloadisdumpedbehindhim,sotheyaresometimescalledrear-dumptrucks.1.3SafetyofStructuresTheprincipalscopeofspecificationsistoprovidegeneralprinciplesandcomputationalmethodsinordertoverifysafetyofstructures.The“safetyfactor”,whichaccordingtomoderntrendsisindependentofthenatureandcombinationofthematerialsused,canusuallybedefinedastheratiobetweentheconditions.Thisratioisalsoproportionaltotheinverseoftheprobability(risk)offailureofthestructure.Failurehastobeconsiderednotonlyasoverallcollapseofthestructurebutalsoasunserviceabilityor,accordingtoamoreprecise.Commondefinition.Asthereachingofa“limitstate”whichcausestheconstructionnottoaccomplishthetaskitwasdesignedfor.Therearetwocategoriesoflimitstate:鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共4頁，當前為第4頁。(1)Ultimatelimitsate,whichcorrespondstothehighestvalueoftheload-bearingcapacity.Examplesincludelocalbucklingorglobalinstabilityofthestructure;failureofsomesectionsandsubsequenttransformationofthestructureintoamechanism;failurebyfatigue;elasticorplasticdeformationorcreepthatcauseasubstantialchangeofthegeometryofthestructure;andsensitivityofthestructuretoalternatingloads,tofireandtoexplosions.鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共4頁，當前為第4頁。(2)Servicelimitstates,whicharefunctionsoftheuseanddurabilityofthestructure.Examplesincludeexcessivedeformationsanddisplacementswithoutinstability;earlyorexcessivecracks;largevibrations;andcorrosion.Computationalmethodsusedtoverifystructureswithrespecttothedifferentsafetyconditionscanbeseparatedinto:(1)Deterministicmethods,inwhichthemainparametersareconsideredasnonrandomparameters.(2)Probabilisticmethods,inwhichthemainparametersareconsideredasrandomparameters.Alternatively,withrespecttothedifferentuseoffactorsofsafety,computationalmethodscanbeseparatedinto:(1)Allowablestressmethod,inwhichthestressescomputedundermaximumloadsarecomparedwiththestrengthofthematerialreducedbygivensafetyfactors.(2)Limitstatesmethod,inwhichthestructuremaybeproportionedonthebasisofitsmaximumstrength.Thisstrength,asdeterminedbyrationalanalysis,shallnotbelessthanthatrequiredtosupportafactoredloadequaltothesumofthefactoredliveloadanddeadload(ultimatestate).Thestressescorrespondingtoworking(service)conditionswithunfactoredliveanddeadloadsarecomparedwithprescribedvalues(servicelimitstate).Fromthefourpossiblecombinationsofthefirsttwoandsecondtwomethods,wecanobtainsomeusefulcomputationalmethods.Generally,twocombinationsprevail:(1)deterministicmethods,whichmakeuseofallowablestresses.(2)Probabilisticmethods,whichmakeuseoflimitstates.Themainadvantageofprobabilisticapproachesisthat,atleastintheory,itispossibletoscientificallytakeintoaccountallrandomfactorsofsafety,whicharethencombinedtodefinethesafetyfactor.probabilisticapproachesdependupon:(1) Randomdistributionofstrengthofmaterialswithrespecttotheconditionsoffabricationanderection(scatterofthevaluesofmechanicalpropertiesthroughoutthestructure);鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共5頁，當前為第5頁。(2) Uncertaintyofthegeometryofthecross-sectionsandofthestructure(faultsandimperfectionsduetofabricationanderectionofthestructure);鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共5頁，當前為第5頁。(3) Uncertaintyofthepredictedliveloadsanddeadloadsactingonthestructure;(4)Uncertaintyrelatedtotheapproximationofthecomputationalmethodused(deviationoftheactualstressesfromcomputedstresses).Furthermore,probabilistictheoriesmeanthattheallowableriskcanbebasedonseveralfactors,suchas:(1) Importanceoftheconstructionandgravityofthedamagebyitsfailure;(2)Numberofhumanliveswhichcanbethreatenedbythisfailure;(3)Possibilityand/orlikelihoodofrepairingthestructure;(4) Predictedlifeofthestructure.Allthesefactorsarerelatedtoeconomicandsocialconsiderationssuchas：(1) Initialcostoftheconstruction;(2) Amortizationfundsforthedurationoftheconstruction;(3) Costofphysicalandmaterialdamageduetothefailureoftheconstruction;(4) Adverseimpactonsociety;(5) Moralandpsychologicalviews.鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共6頁，當前為第6頁。Thedefinitionofalltheseparameters,foragivensafetyfactor,allowsconstructionattheoptimumcost.However,thedifficultyofcarryingoutacompleteprobabilisticanalysishastobetakenintoaccount.Forsuchananalysisthelawsofthedistributionoftheliveloadanditsinducedstresses,ofthescatterofmechanicalpropertiesofmaterials,andofthegeometryofthecross-sectionsandthestructurehavetobeknown.Furthermore,itisdifficulttointerprettheinteractionbetweenthelawofdistributionofstrengthandthatofstressesbecausebothdependuponthenatureofthematerial,onthecross-sectionsandupontheloadactingonthestructure.Thesepracticaldifficultiescanbeovercomeintwoways.Thefirstistoapplydifferentsafetyfactorstothematerialandtotheloads,withoutnecessarilyadoptingtheprobabilisticcriterion.Thesecondisanapproximateprobabilisticmethodwhichintroducessomesimplifyingassumptions(semi-probabilisticmethods)。鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共6頁，當前為第6頁。中文翻譯1.1鋼筋混凝土素混凝土是由水泥、水、細骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空氣，通常還有其他外加劑等經過凝固硬化而成。將可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板內，并將其搗實，然后進行養護，以加速水泥與水的水化反應，最后獲得硬化的混凝土。其最終制成品具有較高的抗壓強度和較低的抗拉強度。其抗拉強度約為抗壓強度的十分之一。因此，截面的受拉區必須配置抗拉鋼筋和抗剪鋼筋以增加鋼筋混凝土構件中較弱的受拉區的強度。由于鋼筋混凝土截面在均質性上與標準的木材或鋼的截面存在著差異，因此，需要對結構設計的基本原理進行修改。將鋼筋混凝土這種非均質截面的兩種組成部分按一定比例適當布置，可以最好的利用這兩種材料。這一要求是可以達到的。因混凝土由配料攪拌成濕拌合物，經過振搗并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一種需要的形狀。如果拌制混凝土的各種材料配合比恰當，則混凝土制成品的強度較高，經久耐用，配置鋼筋后，可以作為任何結構體系的主要構件。澆筑混凝土所需要的技術取決于即將澆筑的構件類型，諸如：柱、梁、墻、板、基礎，大體積混凝土水壩或者繼續延長已澆筑完畢并且已經凝固的混凝土等。對于梁、柱、墻等構件，當模板清理干凈后應該在其上涂油，鋼筋表面的銹及其他有害物質也應該被清除干凈。澆筑基礎前，應將坑底土夯實并用水浸濕6英寸，以免土壤從新澆的混凝土中吸收水分。一般情況下，除使用混凝土泵澆筑外，混凝土都應在水平方向分層澆筑，并使用插入式或表面式高頻電動振搗器搗實。必須記住，過分的振搗將導致骨料離析和混凝土泌漿等現象，因而是有害的。鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共7頁，當前為第7頁。水泥的水化作用發生在有水分存在，而且氣溫在50°F以上的條件下。為了保證水泥的水化作用得以進行，必須具備上述條件。如果干燥過快則會出現表面裂縫，這將有損與混凝土的強度，同時也會影響到水泥水化作用的充分進行。鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共7頁，當前為第7頁。設計鋼筋混凝土構件時顯然需要處理大量的參數，諸如寬度、高度等幾何尺寸，配筋的面積，鋼筋的應變和混凝土的應變，鋼筋的應力等等。因此，在選擇混凝土截面時需要進行試算并作調整，根據施工現場條件、混凝土原材料的供應情況、業主提出的特殊要求、對建筑和凈空高度的要求、所用的設計規范以及建筑物周圍環境條件等最后確定截面。鋼筋混凝土通常是現場澆注的合成材料，它與在工廠中制造的標準的鋼結構梁、柱等不同，因此對于上面所提到的一系列因素必須予以考慮。對結構體系的各個部位均需選定試算截面并進行驗算，以確定該截面的名義強度是否足以承受所作用的計算荷載。由于經常需要進行多次試算，才能求出所需的截面，因此設計時第一次采用的數值將導致一系列的試算與調整工作。選擇混凝土截面時，采用試算與調整過程可以使復核與設計結合在一起。因此，當試算截面選定后，每次設計都是對截面進行復核。手冊、圖表和微型計算機以及專用程序的使用，使這種設計方法更為簡捷有效，而傳統的方法則是把鋼筋混凝土的復核與單純的設計分別進行處理。1.2土方工程由于和土木工程中任何其他工種的施工方法與費用相比較，土方挖運的施工方法與費用的變化都要快得多，因此對于有事業心的人來說，土方工程是一個可以大有作為的領域。在1935年，目前采用的利用輪胎式機械設備進行土方挖運的方法大多數還沒有出現。那是大部分土方是采用窄軌鐵路運輸，在這目前來說是很少采用的。當時主要的開挖方式是使用正鏟、反鏟、拉鏟或抓斗等挖土機，盡管這些機械目前仍然在廣泛應用，但是它們只不過是目前所采用的許多方法中的一小部分。因此，一個工程師為了使自己在土方挖運設備方面的知識跟得上時代的發展，他應當花費一些時間去研究現代的機械。一般說來，有關挖土機、裝載機和運輸機械的唯一可靠而又最新的資料可以從制造廠商處獲得。土方工程或土方挖運工程指的是把地表面過高處的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它傾卸到地表面過低的其他地方（填方）。為了降低土方工程費用，填方量應該等于挖方量，而且挖方地點應該盡可能靠近土方量相等的填方地點，以減少運輸量和填方的二次搬運。土方設計這項工作落到了從事道路設計的工程師的身上，因為土方工程的設計比其他任何工作更能決定工程造價是否低廉。根據現有的地圖和標高，道路工程師應在設計繪圖室中的工作也并不是徒勞的。它將幫助他在最短的時間內獲得最好的方案。鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共8頁，當前為第8頁。費用最低的運土方法是用同一臺機械直接挖方取土并且卸土作為填方。這并不是經常可以做到的，但是如果能夠做到則是很理想的，因為這樣做既快捷又省錢。拉鏟挖土機。推土機和正鏟挖土機都能做到這點。拉鏟挖土機的工作半徑最大。推土機所推運的圖的數量最多，只是運輸距離很短。拉鏟挖土機的缺點是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加壓力挖入壓實的土壤內，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不準確。鋼筋混凝土外文翻譯文獻全文共8頁，當前為第8頁。正鏟挖土機介于推土機和拉鏟挖土機的之間，其作用半徑大于推土機，但小于拉鏟挖土機。正鏟挖土機能挖取豎直陡峭的工作面，這種方式對推土機司機來說是危險的，而對拉鏟挖土機則是不可能的。每種機械設備應該進行最適合它的性能的作業。正鏟挖土機不能挖比其停機平面低很多的土，而深挖堅實的土壤時，反鏟挖土機最適用，但其卸料半徑比起裝有正鏟的同一挖土機的卸料半徑則要小很多。在比較平坦的場地開挖，如果用拉鏟或正鏟挖土機運輸距離太遠時，則裝有輪胎式的斗式鏟運機就是比不可少的。它能在比較平的地面上挖較深的土（但只能挖機械本身下面的土），需要時可以將土運至幾百米遠，然后卸土并在卸土的過程中把土大致鏟平。在挖掘硬土時，人們發現在開挖場地經常用一輛助推拖拉機（輪式或履帶式），對返回挖土的鏟運機進行助推這種施工方法是經濟的。一旦鏟運機裝滿，助推拖拉機就回到開挖的地點去幫助下一臺鏟運機。斗式鏟運機通常是功率非常大的機械，許多廠家制造的鏟運機鏟斗容