10/10專業英語結課翻譯

經濟管理學院

公共事業管理專業英語翻譯

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SolidwastedisposalsurveyofninecitiesintheUnitedStates

AdautoFernandesMarconsina,DervaldosSantosRosab

Keywords:Management

Environmentalsustainability

urbansolidresidues

Biologicalcycleeachyearonthenation'sannualsurveyofmunicipalsolidwastedisposalsituation.Thisyear,themagazinepublishedtheUnitedStatesin2000inninemajorcitiessolidwastedisposalSurveyreport,themaincontentsincludethefollowingthreeaspects:

1.MunicipalsolidwastecollectionandresourcesgarbagecollectioncaseShowninTable1,thesolidwastecollectionsystemoftheCityofNewYorkCityisthemostcomplete,andtheonlyonetoprovidegarbagecollectionservicetoallhouseholdsinthecity,NewYorkCitysolidwastedisposalbudgetthanseveralotherCitymuchmore.AscanbeseenfromTable1,inninemajorcities,theamountofgarbagecollectedbythecollectiondepartmentofpublicgarbagecollectiondepartmentsandprivatecompaniesaresignificantlydifferent.NewYorkCityandDallaspubliccollectiondepartmentsandprivatecompaniesrefusecollectedalmost1:1;thaninurbanareasandtheamountofwastecollectedbyprivatecompaniesinLosAngeles,Chicago,PhiladelphiaandSanDiego

Publiccollecteddepartmentsmuchmore.AscanbeseenfromTable1,thevastmajorityofthecity'spublicwastecollectionsystemhasnotyetreached100%,thisismainlybecausethesecitiesisnotresponsibleforthepubliccollectionsystemtocollecthigh-risebuildinghouseholdgarbage,thispartofthegarbagebytheprivatesectorcollection.Anotherpointworthnotingisthatthreeyearsago,thecityresourcegarbagecollectionhasnotyetreachedeveryhome,now,theurbanresourcegarbagerecyclingandsolidwastecollectiontoachievesynchronization,figurescanbeseenfromTable1,thetwobetweenalmosta1:1relationship.

2.Wasterecyclingandorganicscollectionnumber

Table2providesmunicipalwasterecyclingandorganicscollectionnumberthreecitiestoprovideprivatesectorwasterecycling.NewYorkCitywastecollectionstatisticswithinthejurisdictionofNewYorkCitymostofthewasteistransportedtoplacesoutsideNewYorkCityforprocessing,wherethewasterecyclingstatisticsisverydifficult,forthelackoftheseplaceswasterecoverydata,itisrelativelylowquantitiesofwasterecoveredinNewYork

City.NewYorkCityMunicipalofficialsestimatethat5to6timeshigherthanthefiguresinthetable,inNewYorkCity,thetotalamountofwasterecycling.ChicagoandPhiladelphia,theimplementationofaWasteRecyclingActofdecreesprescribingprivatizationofmunicipalwastecollectioncompaniesmustregularlyreporttothemunicipalgovernmentandrelevantdata,sothesetwocitieswasterecyclingdataarelistedinthetable.Othercitiesdonothavethesituationinthisregard.

Table2alsoshowsthetotalcollectionoftheorganicmattercollectionsystem,thevastmajorityofthecitytoprovideorganicmattertocollectdata,verylargechangesinthevariouscitiesoftheamountoforganicmattercollected.CityofLosAngelesorganicscollectionaccountedfor49.3%ofthetotalamountofwasterecovery;Chicago,organicscollectionaccountedfor46.7%ofthetotalamountofwasterecovery.Bothcitiesattachesgreatimportancetotheweeklyyardwastecollectionactivities,Chicago's"bluebag"collectionactivities,includingthecollectionofitemssuchaspaper,glassbottles,plasticcontainersandbeveragecans,andorganicmatter.Inaddition,environmentalprofessionalandtechnicalpersonneloftheCityofChicagotodesignatheprecisionmixedwasteprocessingequipment,suchequipmentcanbeautomaticallymixedwastesortingorganicsmaterials,thelastorganicparticlesmadeofhighcalorificvalueusedasfuel.TheamountoforganicmattercollectedinSanDiego(organicscollectionaccountedfor73%ofthetotalwasterecycling,whichis84,400tons),includingmajorpublicplacesandparksgreenerygarbageandresidentsyardwastecurbsidecollection.

CanalsobeseenfromTable2,werecognizethesignificanceofthecollectionoforganicmatter,LosAngeles,SanDiegoandChicago,thisattachesgreatimportancetothecollectionoforganicmatter,andachievedveryencouragingresults.Severalothercitiesdidnotattractenoughattentionthecollectionoforganicmatter,thustherelativelylownumberoforganiccollection.Compared,andseveralothercitiesinNewYorkCitywasterecoveryrateisthehighest,accordingtoNewYorkCitymunicipalofficialssay,thisiscausedbyanumberoffactors,inNewYorkCitywasterecyclingregulationsallowresidentsinthevolumeoflargemetalcontainerswithfoodresidue,beveragecansandpapertogetheronbothsidesofthestreetwaitingforcurbsidecollection.NewYorkCitywastepaperrecyclingaccountedfor58%,metal,glassandplasticrecycling42%,becausetheadditionofalargevolumemetalcontainerrecycling,theamountofwasterecyclinginNewYorkCityincreasedby20milliontonsbasedontheoriginal.

NewYorkCitymadegratifyingachievementsAnotherfactorthatNewYorkCityisadenselypopulatedregions,households,mostlyresidentsofhigh-risebuildings,wasterecyclingactivitiesislikelytoyieldresults.Inaddition,theNewYorkCitywastedisposalchannels-FleschJierZiwastesanitarylandfillwasclosedlastyear,thedevelopmentofnewsanitarylandfillisverydifficult,forcingNewYorkCitygarbagerecyclingandwastere-usetofindawayout,tominimizewastegeneration,thusgreatlyincreasingwasterecovery.

3.Municipalsolidwastedisposalbudgetallocations

AscanbeseeninTable3,investmentandbudgetofmajorU.S.citiesinthewasterecycling,compostingandotherformsofwasterecyclingisverydifferent,upto23%,aminimumof4%.Automaticwasterecyclingprocessingfacilitiesandorganictreatmentfacilitiesinthecity,thecapitalinvestedandfeesshouldbehigher,thereisnoautomaticrecoveryofwasteprocessingfacilitiesandorganictreatmentfacilitiesinthecity,onlywiththewastecollectionsysteminthecity,theinvestmentcoststobelower.

Table3alsoshowsthat:ninemajorcitieseachfamilyofmunicipalsolidwastedisposalcosts,upto$215.75,aminimumof$144.18,whichisconstitutedbyavarietyoffactors,includinglocalprocessingcosts,equipmentandhumanresourceallocationpolicy,housingdensity,andwasterecyclingrange,allofthesefactorsdeterminehouseholdwastedisposalcosts.Chicagowithahugeinvestmentinthemixedwasteprocessingfacilities,wasterecyclingcooperationintheentirecitycollectionpartoftheproject,forwhichTable3failstolisttheCityofChicagowasterecyclingfundingfigures.FollowsthatthebudgetpercentageofsolidwastedisposalinthecityofChicagowillberelativelyhigh.

4.Materialsandmethods

AqualitativestudyinvolvingsocioeconomicandenvironmentalaspectswasundertakenbasedonthecriteriadefinedbyAndré(2005).ThisworkwasdoneinthemunicipalityofS?oBernardodoCampoandinvolvedinterviewswithpublicmanagers,membersoftheS?oBernardodoCampocityhall,membersoftheAssociationsofRecyclableMaterialCollectors“CentrodeEcologiaeCidadaniaRefazendo”and“CentrodeEcologiaeCidadaniaRaiodeLuz”andmanagersofthesolidwastecollectioncompanyVegaEngenhariaAmbiental,aswellastheanalysisofappropriatedocumentsmadeavailablebytheS?oBernardodoCampocityhall(PrefeituraMunicipaldeS?oBernardodoCampo,2010).The

formsofmunicipalsolidwastemanagementintheMCandMPPPwereidentifiedandquantifiedthroughinterviewsanddocumentaryresearch,essentiallyasdescribedbyBoniandQuaresma(2005)andMundina(2005).

Fig.1showsaflowchartofwastemanagementintheMCprogramofthemunicipalityofS?oBernardodoCampo.SolidwastecollectionbyMCinvolves203voluntarydeliverypoints,fourecologicalcollectionspointsand700containers.Twoassociationsofrecyclers(the“CentrodeEcologiaeCidadaniaRefazendo”and“CentrodeEcologiaeCidadaniaRaiodeLuz”)sortandcommercializetherecyclablematerial.Non-recyclablewasteistakentotheLaraembankment.Fig.2showsaflowchartofwastemanagementbythemanagementbyMPPPprogramofthemunicipalityofS?oBernardodoCampo.SolidwastecollectionbyMPPPinvolves603voluntarydeliverypoints,26ecologicalcollectionspoints,door-to-doorselectivecollectionand2500containers.Inaddition,morefourassociationsofrecyclers,sortandcommercializetherecyclablematerial.Non-recyclablewasteissenttothewasteprocessingandrecuperationsystem

(WPRS)thatproducesmorerecyclablematerialandcompost.Theorganiccompoundsandnewrecyclablematerialsaremarketed;anyadditionalnon-recyclablewasteisdirectedtotheenergyrecoveryunit(ERU).Theresultingenergyiscommercializedandusedtogenerateslagandashesthatissubsequentlydisposedofatanenvironmentallycorrectdestination.

Thedatafor2011and2012showninTables1–4werebasedonsamplesofmunicipalsolidwastecollectedthroughoutthemunicipalityofS?oBernardodoCampo,i.e.,theentiremunicipalitywasincludedinthisanalysis.Datawerecollectedfrom(a)twopublicmanagers,adirectorandatechnicalassistantintheDepartmentofUrbanSanitationoftheS?oBernardodoCampocityhall,(b)twomanagers,theChairmanandtheSecretaryofeachoftwoAssociationsofRecyclableMaterialCollectors(the“CentrodeEcologia

eCidadaniaRefazendo”andthe“CentrodeEcologiaeCidadaniaRaiodeLuz”)and(c)twodirectorsfromeacho

fthetwocompaniesresponsibleformanagin

gthecollectionofmunicipalwasteinthemunicipalityofS?oBernardodoCampo.Theprimarydocumentalsourcethatprovidedabasisforestimatingthedatafrom2013to2040wasgeneratedbythePrefeituraMunicipaldeS?oBernardodoCampo(2010).

ThisworkwassupportedbyS?oBernardodoCampocityhall,theAssociationofRecyclableMaterialCollectors“CentrodeEcologiaeCidadaniaRaiodeLua”andthewastecollection

companyVegaEngenhariaAmbiental.

Table1

Currentandprojectedrecoveryofmunicipalsolidwastefromthewastecollectedbyyear(dataA);currentandprojectedcostinmillionsofUS$ofthemanagementofmunicipalsolidwasteinSaoBernardodoCampo(dataB);currentandprojectedinvestmentsinmillionsofUS$ofthemanagementofmunicipalsolidwasteinSaoBernardodoCampo(dataC).

Fig.1.SchematicdiagramofthesystemofwastemanagementinthemunicipalityofSaoBernardodoCampoconsideringMC.

Fig.2.SchematicdiagramofthesystemofwastemanagementinthemunicipalityofSaoBernardodoCampoconsideringmanagementbyMPPP.

Table3showstheservicesthatthemunicipalityofSaoBernardodoCampoprovidesfortheAssociationofRecyclableMaterialCol?lectors“CentrodeEcologiaeCidadaniaRaiodeLua”throughtheMCandMPPPprograms.Therewere50collectorsofrecyclablemate?rialintheMCprogramcomparedto600intheMPPPprogram(areductioninsocialimpact);thisdifferencereflectedprimarilytheconstructionofsixnewcentersfortheselectivesortingofurbansolidwasteinthelatterprogram.Theinfrastructurefortheselec?tivesortingofurbansolidwasteinthemanagementbycontractschemewasconsideredinadequatebythetwocollectorassocia?tionsworkinginthisprogram.2

Aquinoetal.(2009)indicatedthatwhencooperativesarecor?rectlyorganizedtheycancreatealegalentitytocoordinatetheirresources,sharetransportationandorganizethesaleofrecyclablematerialsdirectlytolargedealersorrecyclingcompanies.Thistypeofincorporatednetworkcanprovideeconomicadvantagestowastecollectors.Inthetwomanagementformsdescribedhere,themajorpartneroftheAssociationofCollectorswastheSaoBernardodoCampocityhall,whichprovidedtherecyclablematerials,trans?port,spacefortheselectivesortingofrecyclableurbansolidwasteandlegalsupport,whennecessary.

Table4showstheservicesprovidedbythecompanyVegaEngenhariaAmbiental

throughtheMCandMPPPprograms.Notethattheamountofrecyclablematerialcollectedbythemanage?mentbypublic-privatepartnershipwas10timesgreaterthanthatcollectedthroughmanagementbycontract.Thisdifferencereflectedtheimplantationofdoor-to-doorselectivecollectionandtheexpansionofselectivecollectionatvoluntarycollectionpointsandecologicalcollectionpoints.Theimplementationoftheseservicesincreasedthenumberofkilometerstraveledandthecostofselectivewastecollection.

TheMCcollectedonaverage371,167tofurbansolidwasteperyearthatwasdestinedfortheLaraEnergiaBrasilsanitaryembank?mentandthetotaldistancetraveled/daywas1000kmatafuelcostofUS$1500/day.Incontrast,theMPPPcollectedonaverage194,1671ofurbansolidwasteperyearthatwasalsodestinedfortheLaraEnergiaBrasilsanitaryembankmentandthetotaldistancetraveled/daywas300kmatafuelcostofUS$450/day(representingareductionintheenvironmentalandeconomicimpact).

Themarkedreductioninthecostandnumberofkilometerstrav?eledintheMPPPreflectedthesignificantexpansioninselectivewastecollection(door-to-door,voluntarycollectionpoint,ecolog?icalcollectionpoints)andtheimplantationofaWPRS-ERU.BasedondatafromaLifeCycleAssessment(LCA)model,Blengini(2008)hasshownthat,fromalifecycleperspective,thecurrentsystemoforganicwastemanagementbasedoncompostingleadstosig?nificantenvironmentalbenefitswhencomparedwithalternativetraditionallandfills.

5.Conclusion

TheresultsobtainedthroughinterviewsandtheanalysisofdocumentsindicatedthatMPPPwasmoreadvantageousforSaoBernardodoCampothanmanagementMC.Thelattermodelrestrictstheactionsofthepublicsectorandofthecontractedcompanybecauseitlimitsthedurationofthecontracttoamaximumof60monthsandhaslittlescopeforinvestmentorfinancialreturnfortheprivatepartner.Incontrast,MPPPelim?inatestheseproblemsbyallowingcontractsofupto35yearsandencouragingthesaleofenergyandrecycledmaterials;thisinturnstimulatesstronginvestmentindoor-to-doorselectivecol?lection,anincreaseinthenumberofvoluntarycollectionpointsandecologicalcollectionpointsandtheimplantationofWPRS-ERU.

Fromanenvironmentalpointofview,MPPPgeneratedabout52%lessresidueforfinaldisposalinsanitaryembankments,withaconsequentdecreaseinair,soilandwaterpollution;therewasalsoadecreaseintheuseofnaturalresourcesandanincreaseintheamountofmaterialobtainedthroughselectivecollection.Thispart?nershipalsoledtorecoveryoftheAlvarengaembankmentwiththetransformationofthisareaintoapublicpark.Throughthismanage?mentbypublic-privatepartnershipitwasalsopossibletodevelopplanstoenhancepublicawarenessandtoinvestinenvironmen?taleducationinthemanagementofurbansolidwasteaspartofanefforttoincreasetheparticipationofthegeneralpopulationinselectivewastecollection.

Inadditiontotheadvantagesindicatedabove,MPPPprovidedmorejob

opportunitiesbyexpandingthenumberofcollectors;allofthesecollectorswereemployedinsixnewsortingcentersequippedwithpresses,vehiclesformovingbalesandsuitablebenchesortablesforsortingthematerial.Thoseemployedinthesecentershadpreviouslyspentyearsonthestreetswheretheyhadworkedontheirownusing“pushcarts”.Allofthoseemployedinbothprograms(MCandbyMPPP)receivetrainingincitizenship,environmentalissues,administrationandworksafetyinwhichtheydevelopthehabitofusingpersonalsafetyequipment.How?ever,onlyMPPPestablishlaboragreementgovernedbyFederalLaw5.452(1943)whichdealswiththeconsolidationofworklaws.

6.References

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KlangAB,VikmanPer-A,BratteboH.Sustainablemanagementofcombustiblehouseholdwaste-Expandingtheintegratedevaluationmodel.Resources,Con?servationandRecycling2008;52(8-9):1101-11.

Massukado,LM.Sistemadeapoioadecisao:avaliagaodecenariosdegestaointegradaderesiduossolidosurbanosdomiciliares.Disserta<:aodeMestrado.UniversidadeFederaldeSaoCarlos,Brasil;2004.

Meireles,FG,Betancourt,A.FromwastetoGreenJobs:aGreenJobsapproachforwastemanagementintheinformalsector;2011,[Setembro2012].

MuhleS,BalsamI,CheesemanCR.ComparisonofcarbonemissionsassociatedwithmunicipalsolidwastemanagementinGermanyandtheUK.Resources,Conser?vationandRecycling2010;54(11):793-801.

MundinaJB.Analisisdecontenido.Posibilidadesdeaplicacionemlainves-tigacioneducativa.RevistaInteruniversitariadeFormaciondeProfesorado2005;19(2):157-74.

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PrefeituraMunicipaldeSaoBernardodoCampo.PlanoMunicipaldeResi?duosSolidosUrbanos;2010.<http://./doc/e5fd56e09e314332396893a7.html.br/comuns2/pqt_container_novo2.asp?srcpg=ResiduosSolidos14(3):411-20.

SantosGGD.Analiseeperspectivasdealternativasdedestinacaodosresiduossoli?dosurbanos:ocasodaincineracaoedadisposicaoematerros.In:Dissertac互odemestrato;UniversidadeFederaldoRiodeJaneiro.Brasil;2011.

TicarB,ZajcK.Public-privatepartnershipsinSlovenia:recentdevelopmentsandperspectives.ReviewofCentralandEastEuropeanLaw2010;35(2):191-215.WittmaierM,etal.PossibilitiesandlimitationsofLifeCycleAssessment(LCA)inthedevelopmentofwasteutilizationsystems-appliedexamplesforaregioninnorthernGermany.WasteManagement2009;29(5):1732-8.

美國九大城市固體廢棄物處理情況調查

AdautoFernandesMarconsina,DervaldosSantosRosab

計起來非常困難，為此缺少這些地方的廢物回收數據，故紐約市的廢物回收量相對較低。紐約市的市政官員估計，紐約市的廢物回收總量要比表中數字高出5～6倍。由于芝加哥和費城實施了一項廢物回收法令，在法令中規定城市廢物私營收集公司必須定期向市政府匯報工作及提供有關數據，所以表中羅列了這兩個城市的廢物回收數據。其它城市沒有提供這方面的情況。

表2同時還表示出有機物收集系統的總收集量，絕大多數城市都提供了有機物收集數據，各個城市的有機物收集量變化非常大。洛杉磯市的有機物收集量占到其廢物回收總量的49.3％；芝加哥市的有機物收集量占到其廢物回收總量的46.7％。這兩個城市都非常重視每周的庭院垃圾收集活動，芝加哥的“藍色袋子”收集活動所收集的物品包括紙張、玻璃瓶、塑料容器和飲料罐等以及有機物。此外，芝加哥市的環境專業技術人員還設計出了精密混合廢物加工設備，這種設備能夠在混合垃圾中，自動分選有機物材料，最后制成高熱值的有機物顆粒作為燃料使用。圣迭戈市的有機物收集量（有機物收集量占廢物回收總量的73％，也就是84400噸）包括各大公共場所和公園內的綠色植物垃圾以及在路邊收集的居民庭院垃圾。

從表2中我們還可以看出，洛杉磯、圣迭戈和芝加哥市都認識到了有機物收集工作的重要意義，為此非常重視有機物的收集工作，取得了相當可喜的成績。其它幾個城市沒有對有機物的收集工作引起足夠的重視，因而有機物收集數量相對較低。和其它幾個城市相比較，紐約市的廢物回收率是最高的，據紐約市的市政官員講，這是由許多因素造成的，紐約市的廢物回收再利用法規允許居民將容積較大的金屬容器同食品殘渣、飲料罐以及紙張一同放在街道兩旁等待路邊收集。紐約市的廢紙回收占58％，金屬、玻璃和塑料回收占42％，因為加上了容積大的金屬容器回收，紐約市的廢物回收量在原來基礎上增加了20萬噸。

紐約市取得可喜成績的另一因素是由于紐約市是一個人口稠密的地區，住戶多為高層樓房居民，開展廢物回收活動很容易見效。另外，紐約市的垃圾處理主要渠道——弗萊什·基爾茲垃圾衛生填埋場已于去年關閉，開發新的衛生填埋場非常困難，這就迫使紐約市在垃圾資源化和廢物再利用上尋找出路，盡可能減少垃圾的產生，因而大大增加了廢物回收率。

三、城市固體廢棄物處理預算撥款

通過表3可以看出，美國各大城市在廢物回收、堆肥和其它形式的廢物再利用方面的投資和預算有很大的差異，最