martins genre theory and its methodological implication for chinese history discourse analysis 基于馬丁文類理論的歷史語篇分析 也談對漢語歷史語篇研究的方法論啟示,shanghai jiaotong university 王振華上海交通大學外國語學院,preface,issues in japanese textbook of history 1953: the right wing historians do not acknowledge invasion into asian countries in wwii. 1982: distorts historical facts; uses enter 進入 instead of invade 侵入；侵略 1986: another revision of the textbook by the right wing historians.,2001: in 4 of 6 versions of history, no figure (300,000) of the slaughtered people in the nanjing massacre mentioned. 2 of 6 versions changed “the nanjing massacre” into “the nanjing incident”. 5 of them cancelled “slaughtering”, “burning, and “l(fā)ooting”三光政策。 besides, all use “emancipating“解放” and “bring benefits to“造福” instead of invading asian countries,著名歷史學家家永三郎ie naga sabu ro（年月日逝世）就 是這樣一位充滿正義感的日本人，他起訴日本政府對他編寫的高中歷史教科書提出不合理修改要求，開始了他與右翼歷史觀長達多年的斗爭。日本文部省在審定 歷史教科書時，曾要求執(zhí)筆者家永三郎對日本史一書中的處記述進行修改和刪除。例如對“南京大屠殺，文部省要求加入日軍的行為“發(fā)生于混亂之中”、 并要求刪去關于日軍“強奸中國婦女”的內容。此外，文部省還要求刪除有關七三一細菌部隊的記述。家永三郎對此舉不服，并于年狀告文部省。這場針對 “教科書審定違憲”的訴訟得到了多名歷史學家的支持，并且迅速影響到了出版界、法律界、政界，后來演變成了一場有關日本歷史觀的大論戰(zhàn)。(www.xinhuanet.com),questions we may ask:,do the japanese right wing historians reconstruct the history faithfully? why? why the ministry of education 文部省forced 家永三郎ie naga sabu ro to add “occurred in chaos”“發(fā)生于混亂之中 to the nanjing massacre? why use “comfort women” for “sex slaves for japanese soldiers in wwii”? all these have to do with their ideology. and the theory of genre can be one of the effective tools to analyze it.,overview,genre revisited martins matrix for text analysis martins approach to history discourse methodological implication for chinese history discourse analysis,1. genre revisited,- literature perspectives,adena rosmarin (1985: 44,45, 48-9) genre, is a finite schema capable of potentially infinite suggestion. (p44) whenever the difference between species matters, the schema is modified to meet the distinction. (p45) genre is most usefully defined as a tool of critical explanation, as our powerful and reasoned way of justifying the value we place or would place on a literary text. (pp48-9),art silverblatt (2007:3) the word genre simply means “order”. as applied to artistic works, a genre is a type, class, or category of presentation that shares distinctive and easily identifiable features. a genre can be identified by its own distinctive patterns in premise, plot, structure, character, worldview, style, and conventions.,-language studies perspective,bakhtin 1986:(60): speech genre language is realized in the form of concrete utterances (oral and written) by participants in the various areas of human activity. these utterances reflect the specific conditions and goals of each such area not only through their content (thematic) and linguistic style, that is, the selection of lexical, phraseological, and grammatical resources of the language, but above all through their compositional structure.,-speech genre all three of these aspects thematic content, style, and compositional structure are inseparably linked to the whole of the utterance and are equally determined by the specific nature of the particular sphere of communication. each separate utterance is individual, of course, but each sphere in which language is used develops its own relatively stable types of these utterances. these are called speech genres.,j. corbett (2006) in language studies, in the decade following bakhtin, the term genre has been appropriated by linguists who wish to explore nonliterary spoken and written discourse in which expectations of conventional use of text structure, lexis, and syntax are likely to be satisfied; for example, academic research articles, letters of application for employment, recipes, and so-called service encounters in which customers interact with shopkeepers in order to purchase goods.,j swales perspective a genre comprises a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes. (1990:58),-sfl perspective,j. corbett (2006) systemic-functional linguists employ genre as part of their project to relate language use to its social context, in particular, the context of culture. register analysis assumes that textual features can be predicted because texts vary conventionally in relation to three situational variables; namely, field (subject matter), tenor (relationship between participants in the interaction), and mode (whether the text is written or spoken). these situational variables did not deal with why the text might have been written or spoken.,j. r. martin (1992, 1997; martin 2008:5),“social because we participate in genres with other people” (2003/2007:7), “writers shape their texts for readers of particular kinds” (2008:5) “goal-oriented because we use genres to get things done” (2003/2007:7), “we feel frustrated if we dont accomplish the final steps.” (2008:5) “staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach our goals” (2003/2007:7-8; 2008:5),martins definition of genre “flags the way in which most genres take more than a single phase to unfold, the sense of frustration or incompletion that is felt when phases dont unfold as expected or planned, and the fact that genres are addresses (i.e. formulated with readers and listeners in mind), whether or not the intended audience is immediately present to respond. in these terms, as a level of context, genre represents the system of staged goal-oriented social processes through which social subjects in a given culture live their lives. (martin 1997),-summary of genre perspectives,literature: a type, a finite schema capable of potentially infinite suggestion; formed by conventions; identified by its own distinctive patterns in premise, plot, structure, character, worldview, style, and conventions. also, a genre is a type, class, or category of presentation that shares distinctive and easily identifiable features.,language studies: bakhtins speech genres: concrete oral and written utterances by participants in the various areas of human activity; specific conditions and goals; the selection of lexical, phraseological, and grammatical resources, and their compositional structure. each separate utterance is individual, each sphere in which language is used develops its own relatively stable types of these utterances.,john swales: a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes . martin: types of texts; a staged, goal-oriented social processes. we endorse martins idea,main types of genre,stories reports explanations arguments ,2. martins matrix for text analysis: genre driven,function/stratum matrix for text analysis (martin 2009),instantiation,individuation,realisation,3. martins approach to history discourse,recounts,- typologically(serial time to episodic time),recount genres topology.(martin & rose 2008:122),historical accounts & explanations,-typologically (cause) (martin & rose 2008:123),- explanatory genres topology. (martin & rose 2008:124),historical expositions, challenges, discussions,- typologically (values) (martin & rose 2008:126),- arguing genres topology. (martin & rose 2008:126),4. methodological implication for chinese history discourse analysis,ontological and epistemological approaches are mainly adopted in history discourse studies in china., eg. 吳思（2009） a few studies conducted from the linguistic perspective, eg. 李戰(zhàn)子（2000；2002），顧鄉(xiāng)s phd dissertation（2008）. yet what they concerned is english history discourse instead of chinese.,the goal of history discourse analysis is to reconstruct historical facts history discourse is the record of what has already happened via the recall of human beings. the record based on human beings recall reflects the recorders language, culture, value, ideology. the recorder implants his point of view, value, beliefs, in his history discourse.,genre focuses the goal of text as a social process. the medium via which the text goal is realized is language in use. the language in use has its structure, content, and context. the language user organizes the text in accordance with his intention. and a specific genre type has its own feature of periodicity. the language user conveys his information and expresses his feeling via the content. and a specific genre type has its feature of ideation and that of prosody.,the periodicity, ideation, and prosody are the results of the language users choice. his choice is constrained by context. context decides his priority of choice. his priority of choice determines the ordering of the stages of his text, the ways of expressing, and kinds of ideology. his priority of choice also determines that information and ideology occur in any of the stages of the text.,the implications we can drawfrom martins genre analysis of history discourse when we analyze chinese history discourse are to decide the type of genre of the text in question, and analyze it typologically and topologically. typologically for the features of the individual text. topologically for different generic features in the individual text. and then analyze the periodicity of the text analyze the ideation of the text analyze the prosody of the text. integrate the three strands of analysis to look for the information the text conveys; and how well the historical facts are constructed; the intention (goal) of the author; the view point , stance, value, belief of the author.,text analysis 對漢語歷史語篇研究的方法論啟示.doc,5. conclusion,different types of genre of history discourse are different in choosing historical evidences, in organizing the stages, in structuring the prosody. these differences reflect the historians view point and stance towards a certain historical event. hence we have different historical conclusions and different history schools. genre analysis is a complementary approach to the historical approach in the history discourse analysis.,bibliography,silverblatt, a. 2007. genre studies in mass media: a handbook. armonk, new york & london: m. e. sharpe. rosmarin, a. 1985. the power of genre. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. corbett, j. 2006. genre and genre analysis . in k. brown (editor-in-chief), encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd edition). armsterd