ImplementingBusiness/ITSolutionsLearningObjectivesUsethesystemsdevelopmentprocessoutlinedinthischapterandthemodelofIScomponentsfromChapter1asproblem–solvingframeworkstohelpyouproposeinformationsystemssolutionstosimplebusinessproblems.Describeandgiveexamplestoillustratehowyoumightuseeachofthestepsoftheinformationsystemsdevelopmentlifecycletodevelopandimplementabuinessinformationsystem.LearningObjectivesExplainhowprototypingcanbeusedasaneffectivetechniquetoimprovetheprocessofsystemsdevelopmentforendusersandISspecialists.Understandthebasicsofprojectmanagementanditsimportancetoasuccessfulsystemsdevelopmenteffort.Identifytheactivitiesinvolvedintheimplementationofnewinformationsystems.LearningObjectivesCompareandContrastthefourbasicinformationsystemconversionstrategies.Describeseveralevaluationfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredinevaluatingtheacquisitionofhardware,software,andISservices.Section1DevelopingBusinessSystemsI.ISDevelopment

ApplyingtheSystemsApproachtoISdevelopmentTheSystemsApproachisasystematicwaytodevelopasolutiontoaproblemII.TheSystemsApproach

UsesasystemsorientationtodefiningandsolvingproblemsandopportunitiesProblemSolving–therearespecificstepsinsolvinganyproblemRecognize/DefineaProblemorOpportunity–recognizeitexistsDevelopandEvaluateAlternativeSystemSolutions–whatarethedifferentwaystosolvethisproblem?SelecttheBestSystemSolution–decidewhichalternativeisbestDesigntheSelectedSystemSolution–designthesystemforthechosensolutionImplementandEvaluatetheSuccessoftheDesignedSystem–putthesolutionintoeffectandmonitorresultsfortheoutcomeII.TheSystemsApproach

SystemsThinking–the“FifthDiscipline”–seeingthesystemcontextSeetheInterrelationshipsamongthesystemsratherthanlinearcause-and-effectchainsSeetheProcessofchangeamongthesystemsratherthandiscrete‘snapshots’ofchangeII.TheSystemsApproach

SystemsThinking補(bǔ)充:SystemThinkingandCLDWhenaproblemsymptomappears,twooptionspresentthemselves:1)applyashort-termfixtothesymptom,or2)identifyandapplyalonger-termfixtothefundamentalissue.Thesecondoptionislessattractivebecauseitinvolvesagreatertimedelayandprobablyadditionalcostbeforetheproblemsymptomisrelieved.However,applyingashort-termfix,asaresultofrelievingtheproblemsymptomssooner,reducesthedesiretoidentifyandapplyamorepermanentfix.Oftentheshort-termfixalsoinducesasecondaryunintendedside-effectthatfurtherunderminesanyeffortstoapplyalong-termfix.Notethattheshort-termfixonlyrelievesthesymptoms,itdoesnotfixtheproblem.Thus,thesymptomswilleventuallyre-appearandhavetobeaddressedagain.ThisSystemsArchetypewasformallyidentifiedinAppendix2ofTheFifthDisciplinebyPeterSenge(1990).TheCausalLoopDiagram(CLD)isshown.ExploringShiftingtheBurdenwithCreditCardDebtTheCLDforthissituationmatchestheShiftingtheBurdenarchetype,asshownwiththesymptomaticsolutionatthetopandthefundamentalsolutionatthebottom.Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude:Makinguplosttimeforhomeworkbynotsleeping(andthencontrollinglackofsleepwithstimulants)犧牲睡覺(jué)時(shí)間寫(xiě)功課Borrowingmoneytocoveruncontrolledspending借錢(qián)還債而非控制花費(fèi)Feelingbetterthroughtheuseofdrugs(dependencyistheunintendedside-effect)依賴藥物Takingpainrelieverstoaddresschronicpainratherthanvisitingyourdoctortotrytoaddresstheunderlyingproblem對(duì)慢性疼痛靠止痛藥而非找出病灶Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude(2):Improvingcurrentsalesbyfocusingonsellingmoreproducttoexistingcustomersratherthanexpandingthecustomerbase注重短期銷(xiāo)售而非擴(kuò)大客戶基礎(chǔ)Improvingcurrentsalesbycannibalizingfuturesalesthroughdeepdiscounts透過(guò)折扣提前銷(xiāo)售(超售)Firefightingtosolvebusinessproblems,e.g.,slappingalow-quality–anduntested–fixontoaproductandshippingitoutthedoortoplacateacustomer應(yīng)急處理Repeatedlyfixingnewproblemsyourselfratherthanproperlytrainingyourstafftofixtheproblems–thisisaspecialformknownas“shiftingtheburdentotheintervener”whereyouaretheintervenerwhoisinadvertentlyerodingthecapabilitiesandconfidenceofyourstaff(theunintendedside-effect)無(wú)法培養(yǎng)新人Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude

(3):Outsourcingcorebusinesscompetenciesratherthanbuildinginternalcapacity(alsoshiftingtheburdentotheintervener,inthiscase,totheoutsourceprovider)外包核心業(yè)務(wù)Implementinggovernmentprogramsthatincreasetherecipient’sdependencyonthegovernment,e.g.,welfareprogramsthatdonotattempttosimultaneouslyaddresslowunemploymentorlowwages(alsoshiftingtheburdentotheintervener,inthiscase,tothegovernment)接受政府貼補(bǔ)III.SystemsAnalysisandDesign

TheprocessofdesigningandimplementinganIS–Object-orientedorLifeCycleapproachesTheSystemsDevelopmentLifeCycle–amultistep,iterativeprocesstodesigningsystems,verypopular,5Phases:Investigation,Analysis,Design,Implementation,MaintenanceIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopmentProcess

TheSystemsDevelopmentLifeCycleIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopment Process

Systemsdevelopmentcanbeverycostly,investigationsaremadetodeterminewhethertoproceedFeasibilityStudies–identifyneeds,resources,costs,benefitsOperationalFeasibility–willtheproposedsystemfitexistingbusinessenvironmentandobjectives?TechnicalFeasibility–degreetowhichcurrenttechnicalresourcescanbeappliedtothenewsystemHumanFactorsFeasibility–assessthedegreeofapproval/resistancetothenewsystemIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopment Process

EconomicFeasibility–theextenttowhichtheproposedsystemwillprovidepositiveeconomicbenefitstotheorganizationCost/BenefitAnalysis–dothebenefitsjustifythecosts?TangibleCosts/Benefits–canbecalculated/quantified(hardware,software,increaseinpayroll)IntangibleBenefits–hardtocalculate(customerapproval,politicalfeedback)Legal/PoliticalFeasibility–whatarethelegal/politicalramificationsofthenewsystem?IV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopmentProcess

FeasibilityFactorsV.SystemsAnalysis

AdetailedstudyofthecurrentsystemandorganizationalneedsOrganizationalAnalysis–youmusthaveathoroughunderstandingoftheorganizationtomakethesystemworkwellAnalysisofthePresentSystem–“thosewhofailtostudyhistoryaredoomedtorepeatit”,acompleteunderstandingofthecurrentsystemiscriticalLogicalAnalysis–createlogicalmodelsthecurrentsystem,WHATthesystemdoeswithoutregardtoHOWFunctionalRequirementsAnalysisandDetermination–whatInformationisrequiredforeachbusinessactivityandwhatProcessingisrequiredinthesystemPrometric:UnderstandingApplicationPerformanceWhatisPrometric’sproduct?Whatproductmakesallthispossible?Howdoproblemsinthisproductaffecttheirentireoperation?WhatdoesAPMdo?WhatweretheresultsofusingAPM?補(bǔ)充：如何發(fā)現(xiàn)需求

Requirementsdiscovery–theprocessandtechniquesusedbysystemsanalyststoidentifyorextractsystemproblemsandsolutionrequirementsfromtheusercommunity.

由兩部份組成

Functionalrequirement功能性需求 Non-functionalrequirement非功能性需求Functionalvs.NonfunctionalRequirementsFunctionalrequirement-somethingtheinformationsystemmustdo

注logicaldesign→whattodo

physicaldesign→howtodoNonfunctionalrequirement-apropertyorqualitythesystemmusthavePerformanceSecurityCosts需求分析的重要性…(1)客戶這樣解釋項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理這樣以為分析師這樣設(shè)計(jì)需求分析的重要性…(2)程序設(shè)計(jì)師這樣寫(xiě)顧問(wèn)這樣描述項(xiàng)目的文件像這樣需求分析的重要性…(3)實(shí)際裝上去的系統(tǒng)跟顧客收這樣的錢(qián)項(xiàng)目的維護(hù)像這樣需求分析的重要性…(4)客戶其實(shí)真的需要是這樣RelativeCosttoFixanError錯(cuò)誤發(fā)現(xiàn)得越晚，其修正的成本越高所以在需求分析時(shí)期就把事情做好，非常重要為什么不早講ProcessofRequirementsDiscovery發(fā)現(xiàn)需求的程序1Problemdiscoveryandanalysis

先發(fā)現(xiàn)并分析問(wèn)題2Requirementsdiscovery 發(fā)現(xiàn)需求3Documentingandanalyzingrequirements紀(jì)錄并分析需求4Requirementsmanagement 做好需求管理(增修刪/版本控管等)1.問(wèn)題分析-IshikawaDiagram

(a.k.aFishboneDiagram魚(yú)骨圖)Graphicaltoolusedtoidentify,explore,anddepictproblemsandthecausesandeffectsofthoseproblems.Itisoftenreferredtoasacause-and-effectdiagramorafishbonediagram.也稱石川圖、原因與效果圖Problematright(fishhead)Possiblecausesdrawnas"bones"offmainbackboneBrainstormfor3-6maincategoriesofpossiblecauses問(wèn)題分析-魚(yú)骨圖例(1)問(wèn)題分析-魚(yú)骨圖例(2)問(wèn)題分析-魚(yú)骨圖例(3)2.RequirementsDiscoveryGivenanunderstandofproblems,thesystemsanalystcanstarttodefinerequirements. Fact-finding–theformalprocessofusingresearch,meetings,interviews,questionnaires,sampling,andothertechniquestocollectinformationaboutsystemproblems,requirements,andpreferences.Itisalsocalledinformationgatheringordatacollection. 后面會(huì)介紹七種需求收集的技巧3.DocumentingandAnalyzingRequirementsDocumentingthedraftrequirementsUsecases,Decisiontables,Requirementstables等AnalyzingrequirementstoresolveproblemsMissingrequirements 是否有遺漏的Conflictingrequirements 是否有相沖突的Infeasiblerequirements 是否有不可行的Overlappingrequirements 是否有重疊的Ambiguousrequirements 是否有模稜兩可的FormalizingrequirementsRequirementsdefinitiondocumentCommunicatedtostakeholdersorsteeringbodyRequirementsDefinitionDocumentRequirementsDefinitionDocument–Aformaldocumentthatcommunicatestherequirementsofaproposedsystemtokeystakeholdersandservesasacontractforthesystemsproject.需求定義書(shū)SynonymsRequirementsdefinitionreportRequirementsstatementRequirementsspecification通常又稱為需求規(guī)格書(shū)Functionalspecifications或是功能規(guī)格書(shū)SampleRequirementsDefinitionReportOutline4.RequirementsManagement

Requirementsmanagement-theprocessofmanagingchangetotherequirements. 管理需求的變更(增修刪/版本控管等)

Overthelifetimeoftheprojectitisverycommonfornewrequirementstoemergeandexistingrequirementstochange.Studieshaveshownthatoverthelifeofaprojectasmuchas50percentormoreoftherequirementswillchangebeforethesystemisputintoproduction.

研究顯示,項(xiàng)目?jī)?nèi)有超過(guò)一半的需求有可能變動(dòng)SevenFact-FindingTechniques

七種需求收集的技巧Samplingofexistingdocumentation,forms,anddatabases.Researchandsitevisits.Observationoftheworkenvironment.Questionnaires.Interviews.Prototyping.Jointrequirementsplanning(JRP).VI.SystemsDesignCreateanewsystemtosolvetheproblem/opportunityPrototyping–createworkingmodelsoftheproposedsystemThePrototypingProcess–prototypesaredevelopedquicklyfortrialbyuserstoobtainuserfeedbackUserInterfaceDesign–criticalbecausetheinterfaceisthepartofthesystemsclosesttotheuserSystemSpecifications–listingofelementsthatformalizethedesignVI.SystemsDesignThePrototypingProcessTheDeterminantsofProjectSuccessAccordingtothecase,whatisthemostimportantfactorforbusinessprojectsuccess?Whichprojectshavefewestproblems?Whywouldamanagernotknowifhisprojectisstrategic?Whatwasthebiggestchallengegivenbyprojectmanagers?Google’sInterface:BalancingFreedomandConsistencyWhatareGoogle’sdesigndecisionsbasedon?WhatproblemisinherentinGoogle’sculture?Whyisthisaproblemforusers?Whatissuesdoesthiscauseinconsistencyvs.pragmatism?補(bǔ)充:ModelingtheRequirement常用方法流程圖Flowchart(orcalledFlowdiagram)實(shí)體關(guān)系圖+資料流程圖Entity-Relationshipmodel(ERmodel)Dataflowdiagram(DFD)Unifiedmodellanguage(UML)Use-casediagram使用案例，類(lèi)似情境之表示Classdiagram類(lèi)別圖，類(lèi)似個(gè)體關(guān)系之表達(dá)Activitydiagram活動(dòng)圖，類(lèi)似流程圖之表達(dá)Sequencediagram循序圖，活動(dòng)上加入時(shí)序概念Flowchart:Example參考連結(jié)Flowchart:Example參考連結(jié)FlowchartExampleFlowchartExampleVII.End-UserDevelopment

ISprofessionalsactasconsultantswhileuserdotheirownapplicationdevelopmentFocusonISActivities–focusshouldbeonfundamentalactivities:input,processing,output,storage,controlDoingEnd-UserDevelopment–maydiscoverneworimprovedwaystodothejobVII.End-UserDevelopment

BluePrism:“Shadow”ITIsBecomingMorePervasiveWhatis“shadow”IT?Whatsituationscanleadtothisbehavior,andwhydousersdoit?WhatdidtheBluePrismsurveyreveal?WhatisIT’ssolutiontoaproblem?Whyisthisnotalwaysthecorrectsolution?Whatshouldbetheirfocus?VII.TechnicalNote:OverviewofObject- OrientedAnalysisandDesignObjects–anythingaprogrammerwantstomanageormanipulateObject-OrientedProgramming(OOP)Inheritance–abilitytoinheritpropertiesofahigher-orderobjectModularity–aseriesofinterlinkedyetstand-alonemodulesPolymorphism–differentbehaviorbasedonconditionsEncapsulation–concealingallthepropertiesinsidetheobjectObject-OrientedAnalysis(OOA)–modelingtheproblemdomainasanobject-orientedsystemObject-OrientedDesign(OOD)–createsolutionsusingobjectsSection2ImplementingStrategicBusinessSystemsI.TheWorldofSystemsImplementation

Implementationisavitalstepthatmustbecompleted;itisimportanttoPLANanimplementation.II.ImplementingNewSystems

Maybedifficultandtime-consumingTheImplementationProcessProjectPortfolioManagement:ShoottheBadProjects,KeeptheGoodOnesWhatistherewardfordoingagoodjob?Whyisthistrue?WhatskillsneedtobelearnedbyITtoclosethecredibilitygapinPPM?Whatroledoesinternalpoliticshave?WhydoesITlookbadwhenanotherdepartmentcreatesabadproject?III.ProjectManagementWhatIsaProject?–asetofactivitieswithabeginningandanend,hasgoalsandtasks,mayhaveconstraints(limitations)TheProcessofProjectManagement–fivephases:InitiationandDefining–statetheproblemandidentifyobjectivesandresources,explorecosts/benefitsPlanning–identifyandsequenceobjectives/activitiesExecuting–putplansintomotionControlling–ensureprojectobjectivesanddeadlinesaremetClosing–installdeliverables,releaseresources,endtheprojectIII.ProjectManagementPhasesofProjectManagementProjectManagementFunctions

補(bǔ)充：項(xiàng)目管理的八大功能Scoping–settingtheboundariesoftheprojectPlanning–identifyingthetasksrequiredtocompletetheprojectEstimating–identifyingresourcesrequiredtocompletetheprojectScheduling–developingaplantocompletetheprojectOrganizing–makingsuremembersunderstandtheirrolesandresponsibilitiesDirecting–coordinatingtheprojectControlling–monitoringprogressClosing–assessingsuccessandfailureProjectManagementActivities

對(duì)應(yīng)的八項(xiàng)主要活動(dòng)NegotiateScopeIdentifyTasksEstimateTaskDurationsSpecifyIntertaskDependenciesAssignResourcesDirecttheTeamEffortMonitorandControlProgressProjectManagementTools

&TechniquesPERTchart–agraphicalnetworkmodelusedtodepictaproject’stasksandtheirinterdependencies.

Ganttchart–abarchartusedtodepictprojecttasksandtheirtimerequirements.PERTChartGanttChartMicrosoftProjectGanttChartActivity1–NegotiateScopeScope–theboundariesofaproject–theareasofabusinessthataprojectmay(ormaynot)address.Includesanswerstofivebasicquestions:工作范圍,要回答這五個(gè)問(wèn)題 Product Quality Time Cost Resources

Statementofwork

(SOW)–anarrativedescribingtheworktobeperformedaspartofaproject.Commonsynonymsincludescopestatement,projectdefinition,projectoverview,anddocumentofunderstanding.StatementofWork

(SOW工作說(shuō)明書(shū)的大綱範(fàn)例)I. PurposeII. Background A.Problem,opportunity,ordirectivestatement B.Historyleadingtoprojectrequest C.Projectgoalandobjectives D.ProductdescriptionIII. Scope A.Stakeholders B.Data C.Processes D.LocationsIV. ProjectApproach A.Route B.DeliverablesV. ManagerialApproach A.Teambuildingconsiderations B.Managerandexperience C.Trainingrequirements

(continued)NoticetheuseofinformationsystembuildingblocksStatementofWork

(SOW工作說(shuō)明書(shū)的大綱範(fàn)例)續(xù)V. ManagerialApproach(continued) D.Meetingschedules E.Reportingmethodsandfrequency F.Conflictmanagement G.ScopemanagementVI. Constraints A.Startdate B.Deadlines C.Budget D.TechnologyVII. BallparkEstimates A.Schedule B.BudgetVIII. ConditionsofSatisfaction A.Successcriteria B.Assumptions C.RisksIX. AppendicesActivity2–IdentifyTasksWorkbreakdownstructure(WBS)工作展開(kāi)結(jié)構(gòu)–agraphicaldiagramusedtodepictthehierarchicaldecompositionoftheprojectintophases,activities,andtasks.Milestone里程碑

–aneventsignifyingthecompletionofamajorprojecttaskordeliverable.(實(shí)務(wù)上跟收款有關(guān))Activity3–EstimateTaskDurationsElapsedtimetakesintoconsideration:Efficiency-noworkerperformsat100%efficiency考量實(shí)際產(chǎn)出效率Coffeebreaks,lunch,e-mail,etc.Estimatesof75%efficiencyarecommonInterruptions可能被中斷的情況Phonecalls,visitors,etc.10-50%Activity3–EstimateTaskDurations(continued)1.

Estimatetheminimumamountoftimeitwouldtaketoperformthetask–theoptimisticduration(OD).2.

Estimatethemaximumamountoftimeitwouldtaketoperformthetask–thepessimisticduration(PD).3.

Estimatetheexpectedduration(ED)thatwillbeneededtoperformthetask.4.

Calculateaweightedaverageofthemostlikelyduration(D)asfollows:D=(1xOD)+(4xED)+(1xPD)

6

3.33days=(1x2days)+(4x3days)+(1x6days)

6

PDEDODActivity4–SpecifyIntertaskDependencies兩個(gè)工作間的四種關(guān)系Finish-to-start(FS)—Thefinishofonetasktriggersthestartofanothertask.例:裝完管線才能鋪地板Start-to-start(SS)—Thestartofonetasktriggersthestartofanothertask.例:開(kāi)始拆舊裝璜就要同時(shí)開(kāi)始清運(yùn)垃圾Finish-to-finish(FF)—Twotasksmustfinishatthesametime.例:電話線與網(wǎng)絡(luò)線都拉好才能組辦公家具Start-to-finish(SF)—Thestartofonetasksignifiesthefinishofanothertask.例:開(kāi)始搬入家具表示油漆工程完成了EnteringIntertaskDependencies輸入工作相依性SchedulingStrategies

兩種排程的策略Forwardscheduling–aprojectschedulingapproachthatestablishesaprojectstartdateandthenschedulestasksforwardfromthestartdate.從開(kāi)始日開(kāi)始,由前往后排

Reversescheduling–aprojectschedulingstrategythatestablishesaprojectdeadlineandthenschedulestasksbackwardfromthefinishdate.從結(jié)束日開(kāi)始,由后往前排Activity5–AssignResources

分派五大資源People–includesallsystemowners,users,analysts,designers,builders,externalagents,andclericalhelpinvolvedintheprojectinanyway.Services–includesservicessuchasaqualityreviewthatmaybechargedonaperusebasis.Facilitiesandequipment–includesallroomsandtechnologythatwillbeneededtocompletetheproject.Suppliesandmaterials–everythingfrompencils,paper,notebookstotonercartridges,andsoon.Money–includesatranslationofalloftheaboveintobudgeteddollars!DefiningProjectResourcesAssigningProjectResourcesAssigningPeopletoTasks

將人與工作任務(wù)連起來(lái)Recruittalented,highlymotivatedpeople

任用有才能,有成就動(dòng)機(jī)的人Selecttheappropriatepersonforeachtask針對(duì)每個(gè)工作,選擇最合適的人Promoteteamharmony保持團(tuán)隊(duì)和諧Planforthefuture預(yù)估到未來(lái)的需求Keeptheteamsizesmall不要一次加太多人ResourceLeveling資源撫平Resourceleveling–astrategyforcorrectingresourceover-allocations.例:當(dāng)同一個(gè)人同時(shí)被分派到兩項(xiàng)工作時(shí)

Twotechniquesforresourceleveling: taskdelaying工作遞延 tasksplitting工作分割TaskSplittingandTaskDelaying何時(shí)該選用工作分割或工作遞延?Criticalpath要徑

–thesequenceofdependenttasksthatdeterminestheearliestpossiblecompletiondateoftheproject.Tasksonthecriticalpathcannotbedelayedwithoutdelayingtheentireprojectcompletiontime.Criticaltaskscanonlybesplit.此時(shí)只能用分割的方法Slacktime寬松時(shí)間

–theamountoftimethatataskcanbedelayedwithoutcausingadelayinthecompletiondateoftheentireproject.Tasksthathaveslacktimecanbedelayedtoachieveresourceleveling此時(shí)可以用遞延的方法Activity6–DirecttheTeamEffortSupervisionresources 隨時(shí)監(jiān)督資源的使用狀況TheDeadline:ANovelaboutProjectManagementThePeopleSideofSystemsTheOneMinuteManager

一分鐘經(jīng)理人:立標(biāo),贊賞,申誡TheOneMinuteManagerMeetstheMonkeyStagesofTeamMaturity

(seefiguretotheright) 團(tuán)隊(duì)成熟度的不同階段形成沖進(jìn)規(guī)范執(zhí)行10HintsforProjectLeadership

項(xiàng)目領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的十個(gè)要訣BeConsistent.要一致ProvideSupport.要提供支援Don’tMakePromisesYouCan’tKeep.不要承諾做不到的事PraiseinPublic;CriticizeinPrivate.公開(kāi)表?yè)P(yáng),私下申誡BeAwareofMoraleDangerPoints.注意會(huì)讓士氣受損的事SetRealisticDeadlines.設(shè)定符合實(shí)際的期限SetPerceivableTargets.設(shè)定可看到的目標(biāo)ExplainandShow,RatherThanDo.多解釋與示范,而不是直接做Don’tRelyonJustStatusReports.不可只依賴進(jìn)度報(bào)告EncourageaGoodTeamSpirit.鼓吹好的團(tuán)隊(duì)精神Activity7–Monitorand

ControlProgressProgressreporting進(jìn)度報(bào)告Changemanagement變動(dòng)管理Expectationsmanagement預(yù)期管理Scheduleadjustments—criticalpathanalysis(CPA)更改時(shí)程與要徑分析ChangeManagement

變動(dòng)管理Changemanagement–aformalstrategyinwhichaprocessisestablishedtofacilitatechangesthatoccurduringaproject.Changescanbetheresultofvariouseventsandfactorsincluding:為什么會(huì)造成變動(dòng)的幾大原因：Anomissionindefininginitialscope工作定義時(shí)有疏漏Amisunderstandingoftheinitialscope誤解工作范圍Anexternaleventsuchasgovernmentregulationsthatcreatenewrequirements外部事件造成新需求(如政府法令要求)Organizationalchanges組織變動(dòng)Availabilityofbettertechnology有更好的技術(shù)可用Shiftsinplannedtechnologythatforcechangestothebusinessorganization,culture,and/orprocesses技術(shù)造成的改變Management’sdesiretohavethesystemdomore管理階層Reducedfundingforprojectorimpositionofanearlierdeadline.經(jīng)費(fèi)減少或時(shí)程提前Activity8–AssessProjectResultsandExperiencesDidthefinalproductmeetorexceeduserexpectations?Whyorwhynot?Didtheprojectcomeinonschedule?Whyorwhynot?Didtheprojectcomeinunderbudget?Whyorwhynot?SAS:ServicesKeyinMainframeMigrationProjectWhatistheproblemwiththecurrent“homegrown”SASsystem?Whatsolutionsdoesthenewsystemprovide?Whataretheexpecteddollarsavingsfro,thisimplementation?IV.EvaluatingHardware,Software,and Services

PerformancemustbedemonstratedandevaluatedHardwareEvaluationFactors–physicaland