ImplementingBusiness/ITSolutionsLearningObjectivesUsethesystemsdevelopmentprocessoutlinedinthischapterandthemodelofIScomponentsfromChapter1asproblem–solvingframeworkstohelpyouproposeinformationsystemssolutionstosimplebusinessproblems.Describeandgiveexamplestoillustratehowyoumightuseeachofthestepsoftheinformationsystemsdevelopmentlifecycletodevelopandimplementabuinessinformationsystem.LearningObjectivesExplainhowprototypingcanbeusedasaneffectivetechniquetoimprovetheprocessofsystemsdevelopmentforendusersandISspecialists.Understandthebasicsofprojectmanagementanditsimportancetoasuccessfulsystemsdevelopmenteffort.Identifytheactivitiesinvolvedintheimplementationofnewinformationsystems.LearningObjectivesCompareandContrastthefourbasicinformationsystemconversionstrategies.Describeseveralevaluationfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredinevaluatingtheacquisitionofhardware,software,andISservices.Section1DevelopingBusinessSystemsI.ISDevelopment

ApplyingtheSystemsApproachtoISdevelopmentTheSystemsApproachisasystematicwaytodevelopasolutiontoaproblemII.TheSystemsApproach

UsesasystemsorientationtodefiningandsolvingproblemsandopportunitiesProblemSolving–therearespecificstepsinsolvinganyproblemRecognize/DefineaProblemorOpportunity–recognizeitexistsDevelopandEvaluateAlternativeSystemSolutions–whatarethedifferentwaystosolvethisproblem?SelecttheBestSystemSolution–decidewhichalternativeisbestDesigntheSelectedSystemSolution–designthesystemforthechosensolutionImplementandEvaluatetheSuccessoftheDesignedSystem–putthesolutionintoeffectandmonitorresultsfortheoutcomeII.TheSystemsApproach

SystemsThinking–the“FifthDiscipline”–seeingthesystemcontextSeetheInterrelationshipsamongthesystemsratherthanlinearcause-and-effectchainsSeetheProcessofchangeamongthesystemsratherthandiscrete‘snapshots’ofchangeII.TheSystemsApproach

SystemsThinking補充:SystemThinkingandCLDWhenaproblemsymptomappears,twooptionspresentthemselves:1)applyashort-termfixtothesymptom,or2)identifyandapplyalonger-termfixtothefundamentalissue.Thesecondoptionislessattractivebecauseitinvolvesagreatertimedelayandprobablyadditionalcostbeforetheproblemsymptomisrelieved.However,applyingashort-termfix,asaresultofrelievingtheproblemsymptomssooner,reducesthedesiretoidentifyandapplyamorepermanentfix.Oftentheshort-termfixalsoinducesasecondaryunintendedside-effectthatfurtherunderminesanyeffortstoapplyalong-termfix.Notethattheshort-termfixonlyrelievesthesymptoms,itdoesnotfixtheproblem.Thus,thesymptomswilleventuallyre-appearandhavetobeaddressedagain.ThisSystemsArchetypewasformallyidentifiedinAppendix2ofTheFifthDisciplinebyPeterSenge(1990).TheCausalLoopDiagram(CLD)isshown.ExploringShiftingtheBurdenwithCreditCardDebtTheCLDforthissituationmatchestheShiftingtheBurdenarchetype,asshownwiththesymptomaticsolutionatthetopandthefundamentalsolutionatthebottom.Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude:Makinguplosttimeforhomeworkbynotsleeping(andthencontrollinglackofsleepwithstimulants)犧牲睡覺時間寫功課Borrowingmoneytocoveruncontrolledspending借錢還債而非控制花費Feelingbetterthroughtheuseofdrugs(dependencyistheunintendedside-effect)依賴藥物Takingpainrelieverstoaddresschronicpainratherthanvisitingyourdoctortotrytoaddresstheunderlyingproblem對慢性疼痛靠止痛藥而非找出病灶Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude(2):Improvingcurrentsalesbyfocusingonsellingmoreproducttoexistingcustomersratherthanexpandingthecustomerbase注重短期銷售而非擴大客戶基礎Improvingcurrentsalesbycannibalizingfuturesalesthroughdeepdiscounts透過折扣提前銷售(超售)Firefightingtosolvebusinessproblems,e.g.,slappingalow-quality–anduntested–fixontoaproductandshippingitoutthedoortoplacateacustomer應急處理Repeatedlyfixingnewproblemsyourselfratherthanproperlytrainingyourstafftofixtheproblems–thisisaspecialformknownas“shiftingtheburdentotheintervener”whereyouaretheintervenerwhoisinadvertentlyerodingthecapabilitiesandconfidenceofyourstaff(theunintendedside-effect)無法培養新人Classicexamplesofshiftingtheburdeninclude

(3):Outsourcingcorebusinesscompetenciesratherthanbuildinginternalcapacity(alsoshiftingtheburdentotheintervener,inthiscase,totheoutsourceprovider)外包核心業務Implementinggovernmentprogramsthatincreasetherecipient’sdependencyonthegovernment,e.g.,welfareprogramsthatdonotattempttosimultaneouslyaddresslowunemploymentorlowwages(alsoshiftingtheburdentotheintervener,inthiscase,tothegovernment)接受政府貼補III.SystemsAnalysisandDesign

TheprocessofdesigningandimplementinganIS–Object-orientedorLifeCycleapproachesTheSystemsDevelopmentLifeCycle–amultistep,iterativeprocesstodesigningsystems,verypopular,5Phases:Investigation,Analysis,Design,Implementation,MaintenanceIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopmentProcess

TheSystemsDevelopmentLifeCycleIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopment Process

Systemsdevelopmentcanbeverycostly,investigationsaremadetodeterminewhethertoproceedFeasibilityStudies–identifyneeds,resources,costs,benefitsOperationalFeasibility–willtheproposedsystemfitexistingbusinessenvironmentandobjectives?TechnicalFeasibility–degreetowhichcurrenttechnicalresourcescanbeappliedtothenewsystemHumanFactorsFeasibility–assessthedegreeofapproval/resistancetothenewsystemIV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopment Process

EconomicFeasibility–theextenttowhichtheproposedsystemwillprovidepositiveeconomicbenefitstotheorganizationCost/BenefitAnalysis–dothebenefitsjustifythecosts?TangibleCosts/Benefits–canbecalculated/quantified(hardware,software,increaseinpayroll)IntangibleBenefits–hardtocalculate(customerapproval,politicalfeedback)Legal/PoliticalFeasibility–whatarethelegal/politicalramificationsofthenewsystem?IV.StartingtheSystemsDevelopmentProcess

FeasibilityFactorsV.SystemsAnalysis

AdetailedstudyofthecurrentsystemandorganizationalneedsOrganizationalAnalysis–youmusthaveathoroughunderstandingoftheorganizationtomakethesystemworkwellAnalysisofthePresentSystem–“thosewhofailtostudyhistoryaredoomedtorepeatit”,acompleteunderstandingofthecurrentsystemiscriticalLogicalAnalysis–createlogicalmodelsthecurrentsystem,WHATthesystemdoeswithoutregardtoHOWFunctionalRequirementsAnalysisandDetermination–whatInformationisrequiredforeachbusinessactivityandwhatProcessingisrequiredinthesystemPrometric:UnderstandingApplicationPerformanceWhatisPrometric’sproduct?Whatproductmakesallthispossible?Howdoproblemsinthisproductaffecttheirentireoperation?WhatdoesAPMdo?WhatweretheresultsofusingAPM?補充：如何發現需求

Requirementsdiscovery–theprocessandtechniquesusedbysystemsanalyststoidentifyorextractsystemproblemsandsolutionrequirementsfromtheusercommunity.

由兩部份組成

Functionalrequirement功能性需求 Non-functionalrequirement非功能性需求Functionalvs.NonfunctionalRequirementsFunctionalrequirement-somethingtheinformationsystemmustdo

注logicaldesign→whattodo

physicaldesign→howtodoNonfunctionalrequirement-apropertyorqualitythesystemmusthavePerformanceSecurityCosts需求分析的重要性…(1)客戶這樣解釋項目經理這樣以為分析師這樣設計需求分析的重要性…(2)程序設計師這樣寫顧問這樣描述項目的文件像這樣需求分析的重要性…(3)實際裝上去的系統跟顧客收這樣的錢項目的維護像這樣需求分析的重要性…(4)客戶其實真的需要是這樣RelativeCosttoFixanError錯誤發現得越晚，其修正的成本越高所以在需求分析時期就把事情做好，非常重要為什么不早講ProcessofRequirementsDiscovery發現需求的程序1Problemdiscoveryandanalysis

先發現并分析問題2Requirementsdiscovery 發現需求3Documentingandanalyzingrequirements紀錄并分析需求4Requirementsmanagement 做好需求管理(增修刪/版本控管等)1.問題分析-IshikawaDiagram

(a.k.aFishboneDiagram魚骨圖)Graphicaltoolusedtoidentify,explore,anddepictproblemsandthecausesandeffectsofthoseproblems.Itisoftenreferredtoasacause-and-effectdiagramorafishbonediagram.也稱石川圖、原因與效果圖Problematright(fishhead)Possiblecausesdrawnas"bones"offmainbackboneBrainstormfor3-6maincategoriesofpossiblecauses問題分析-魚骨圖例(1)問題分析-魚骨圖例(2)問題分析-魚骨圖例(3)2.RequirementsDiscoveryGivenanunderstandofproblems,thesystemsanalystcanstarttodefinerequirements. Fact-finding–theformalprocessofusingresearch,meetings,interviews,questionnaires,sampling,andothertechniquestocollectinformationaboutsystemproblems,requirements,andpreferences.Itisalsocalledinformationgatheringordatacollection. 后面會介紹七種需求收集的技巧3.DocumentingandAnalyzingRequirementsDocumentingthedraftrequirementsUsecases,Decisiontables,Requirementstables等AnalyzingrequirementstoresolveproblemsMissingrequirements 是否有遺漏的Conflictingrequirements 是否有相沖突的Infeasiblerequirements 是否有不可行的Overlappingrequirements 是否有重疊的Ambiguousrequirements 是否有模稜兩可的FormalizingrequirementsRequirementsdefinitiondocumentCommunicatedtostakeholdersorsteeringbodyRequirementsDefinitionDocumentRequirementsDefinitionDocument–Aformaldocumentthatcommunicatestherequirementsofaproposedsystemtokeystakeholdersandservesasacontractforthesystemsproject.需求定義書SynonymsRequirementsdefinitionreportRequirementsstatementRequirementsspecification通常又稱為需求規格書Functionalspecifications或是功能規格書SampleRequirementsDefinitionReportOutline4.RequirementsManagement

Requirementsmanagement-theprocessofmanagingchangetotherequirements. 管理需求的變更(增修刪/版本控管等)

Overthelifetimeoftheprojectitisverycommonfornewrequirementstoemergeandexistingrequirementstochange.Studieshaveshownthatoverthelifeofaprojectasmuchas50percentormoreoftherequirementswillchangebeforethesystemisputintoproduction.

研究顯示,項目內有超過一半的需求有可能變動SevenFact-FindingTechniques

七種需求收集的技巧Samplingofexistingdocumentation,forms,anddatabases.Researchandsitevisits.Observationoftheworkenvironment.Questionnaires.Interviews.Prototyping.Jointrequirementsplanning(JRP).VI.SystemsDesignCreateanewsystemtosolvetheproblem/opportunityPrototyping–createworkingmodelsoftheproposedsystemThePrototypingProcess–prototypesaredevelopedquicklyfortrialbyuserstoobtainuserfeedbackUserInterfaceDesign–criticalbecausetheinterfaceisthepartofthesystemsclosesttotheuserSystemSpecifications–listingofelementsthatformalizethedesignVI.SystemsDesignThePrototypingProcessTheDeterminantsofProjectSuccessAccordingtothecase,whatisthemostimportantfactorforbusinessprojectsuccess?Whichprojectshavefewestproblems?Whywouldamanagernotknowifhisprojectisstrategic?Whatwasthebiggestchallengegivenbyprojectmanagers?Google’sInterface:BalancingFreedomandConsistencyWhatareGoogle’sdesigndecisionsbasedon?WhatproblemisinherentinGoogle’sculture?Whyisthisaproblemforusers?Whatissuesdoesthiscauseinconsistencyvs.pragmatism?補充:ModelingtheRequirement常用方法流程圖Flowchart(orcalledFlowdiagram)實體關系圖+資料流程圖Entity-Relationshipmodel(ERmodel)Dataflowdiagram(DFD)Unifiedmodellanguage(UML)Use-casediagram使用案例，類似情境之表示Classdiagram類別圖，類似個體關系之表達Activitydiagram活動圖，類似流程圖之表達Sequencediagram循序圖，活動上加入時序概念Flowchart:Example參考連結Flowchart:Example參考連結FlowchartExampleFlowchartExampleVII.End-UserDevelopment

ISprofessionalsactasconsultantswhileuserdotheirownapplicationdevelopmentFocusonISActivities–focusshouldbeonfundamentalactivities:input,processing,output,storage,controlDoingEnd-UserDevelopment–maydiscoverneworimprovedwaystodothejobVII.End-UserDevelopment

BluePrism:“Shadow”ITIsBecomingMorePervasiveWhatis“shadow”IT?Whatsituationscanleadtothisbehavior,andwhydousersdoit?WhatdidtheBluePrismsurveyreveal?WhatisIT’ssolutiontoaproblem?Whyisthisnotalwaysthecorrectsolution?Whatshouldbetheirfocus?VII.TechnicalNote:OverviewofObject- OrientedAnalysisandDesignObjects–anythingaprogrammerwantstomanageormanipulateObject-OrientedProgramming(OOP)Inheritance–abilitytoinheritpropertiesofahigher-orderobjectModularity–aseriesofinterlinkedyetstand-alonemodulesPolymorphism–differentbehaviorbasedonconditionsEncapsulation–concealingallthepropertiesinsidetheobjectObject-OrientedAnalysis(OOA)–modelingtheproblemdomainasanobject-orientedsystemObject-OrientedDesign(OOD)–createsolutionsusingobjectsSection2ImplementingStrategicBusinessSystemsI.TheWorldofSystemsImplementation

Implementationisavitalstepthatmustbecompleted;itisimportanttoPLANanimplementation.II.ImplementingNewSystems

Maybedifficultandtime-consumingTheImplementationProcessProjectPortfolioManagement:ShoottheBadProjects,KeeptheGoodOnesWhatistherewardfordoingagoodjob?Whyisthistrue?WhatskillsneedtobelearnedbyITtoclosethecredibilitygapinPPM?Whatroledoesinternalpoliticshave?WhydoesITlookbadwhenanotherdepartmentcreatesabadproject?III.ProjectManagementWhatIsaProject?–asetofactivitieswithabeginningandanend,hasgoalsandtasks,mayhaveconstraints(limitations)TheProcessofProjectManagement–fivephases:InitiationandDefining–statetheproblemandidentifyobjectivesandresources,explorecosts/benefitsPlanning–identifyandsequenceobjectives/activitiesExecuting–putplansintomotionControlling–ensureprojectobjectivesanddeadlinesaremetClosing–installdeliverables,releaseresources,endtheprojectIII.ProjectManagementPhasesofProjectManagementProjectManagementFunctions

補充：項目管理的八大功能Scoping–settingtheboundariesoftheprojectPlanning–identifyingthetasksrequiredtocompletetheprojectEstimating–identifyingresourcesrequiredtocompletetheprojectScheduling–developingaplantocompletetheprojectOrganizing–makingsuremembersunderstandtheirrolesandresponsibilitiesDirecting–coordinatingtheprojectControlling–monitoringprogressClosing–assessingsuccessandfailureProjectManagementActivities

對應的八項主要活動NegotiateScopeIdentifyTasksEstimateTaskDurationsSpecifyIntertaskDependenciesAssignResourcesDirecttheTeamEffortMonitorandControlProgressProjectManagementTools

&TechniquesPERTchart–agraphicalnetworkmodelusedtodepictaproject’stasksandtheirinterdependencies.

Ganttchart–abarchartusedtodepictprojecttasksandtheirtimerequirements.PERTChartGanttChartMicrosoftProjectGanttChartActivity1–NegotiateScopeScope–theboundariesofaproject–theareasofabusinessthataprojectmay(ormaynot)address.Includesanswerstofivebasicquestions:工作范圍,要回答這五個問題 Product Quality Time Cost Resources

Statementofwork

(SOW)–anarrativedescribingtheworktobeperformedaspartofaproject.Commonsynonymsincludescopestatement,projectdefinition,projectoverview,anddocumentofunderstanding.StatementofWork

(SOW工作說明書的大綱範例)I. PurposeII. Background A.Problem,opportunity,ordirectivestatement B.Historyleadingtoprojectrequest C.Projectgoalandobjectives D.ProductdescriptionIII. Scope A.Stakeholders B.Data C.Processes D.LocationsIV. ProjectApproach A.Route B.DeliverablesV. ManagerialApproach A.Teambuildingconsiderations B.Managerandexperience C.Trainingrequirements

(continued)NoticetheuseofinformationsystembuildingblocksStatementofWork

(SOW工作說明書的大綱範例)續V. ManagerialApproach(continued) D.Meetingschedules E.Reportingmethodsandfrequency F.Conflictmanagement G.ScopemanagementVI. Constraints A.Startdate B.Deadlines C.Budget D.TechnologyVII. BallparkEstimates A.Schedule B.BudgetVIII. ConditionsofSatisfaction A.Successcriteria B.Assumptions C.RisksIX. AppendicesActivity2–IdentifyTasksWorkbreakdownstructure(WBS)工作展開結構–agraphicaldiagramusedtodepictthehierarchicaldecompositionoftheprojectintophases,activities,andtasks.Milestone里程碑

–aneventsignifyingthecompletionofamajorprojecttaskordeliverable.(實務上跟收款有關)Activity3–EstimateTaskDurationsElapsedtimetakesintoconsideration:Efficiency-noworkerperformsat100%efficiency考量實際產出效率Coffeebreaks,lunch,e-mail,etc.Estimatesof75%efficiencyarecommonInterruptions可能被中斷的情況Phonecalls,visitors,etc.10-50%Activity3–EstimateTaskDurations(continued)1.

Estimatetheminimumamountoftimeitwouldtaketoperformthetask–theoptimisticduration(OD).2.

Estimatethemaximumamountoftimeitwouldtaketoperformthetask–thepessimisticduration(PD).3.

Estimatetheexpectedduration(ED)thatwillbeneededtoperformthetask.4.

Calculateaweightedaverageofthemostlikelyduration(D)asfollows:D=(1xOD)+(4xED)+(1xPD)

6

3.33days=(1x2days)+(4x3days)+(1x6days)

6

PDEDODActivity4–SpecifyIntertaskDependencies兩個工作間的四種關系Finish-to-start(FS)—Thefinishofonetasktriggersthestartofanothertask.例:裝完管線才能鋪地板Start-to-start(SS)—Thestartofonetasktriggersthestartofanothertask.例:開始拆舊裝璜就要同時開始清運垃圾Finish-to-finish(FF)—Twotasksmustfinishatthesametime.例:電話線與網絡線都拉好才能組辦公家具Start-to-finish(SF)—Thestartofonetasksignifiesthefinishofanothertask.例:開始搬入家具表示油漆工程完成了EnteringIntertaskDependencies輸入工作相依性SchedulingStrategies

兩種排程的策略Forwardscheduling–aprojectschedulingapproachthatestablishesaprojectstartdateandthenschedulestasksforwardfromthestartdate.從開始日開始,由前往后排

Reversescheduling–aprojectschedulingstrategythatestablishesaprojectdeadlineandthenschedulestasksbackwardfromthefinishdate.從結束日開始,由后往前排Activity5–AssignResources

分派五大資源People–includesallsystemowners,users,analysts,designers,builders,externalagents,andclericalhelpinvolvedintheprojectinanyway.Services–includesservicessuchasaqualityreviewthatmaybechargedonaperusebasis.Facilitiesandequipment–includesallroomsandtechnologythatwillbeneededtocompletetheproject.Suppliesandmaterials–everythingfrompencils,paper,notebookstotonercartridges,andsoon.Money–includesatranslationofalloftheaboveintobudgeteddollars!DefiningProjectResourcesAssigningProjectResourcesAssigningPeopletoTasks

將人與工作任務連起來Recruittalented,highlymotivatedpeople

任用有才能,有成就動機的人Selecttheappropriatepersonforeachtask針對每個工作,選擇最合適的人Promoteteamharmony保持團隊和諧Planforthefuture預估到未來的需求Keeptheteamsizesmall不要一次加太多人ResourceLeveling資源撫平Resourceleveling–astrategyforcorrectingresourceover-allocations.例:當同一個人同時被分派到兩項工作時

Twotechniquesforresourceleveling: taskdelaying工作遞延 tasksplitting工作分割TaskSplittingandTaskDelaying何時該選用工作分割或工作遞延?Criticalpath要徑

–thesequenceofdependenttasksthatdeterminestheearliestpossiblecompletiondateoftheproject.Tasksonthecriticalpathcannotbedelayedwithoutdelayingtheentireprojectcompletiontime.Criticaltaskscanonlybesplit.此時只能用分割的方法Slacktime寬松時間

–theamountoftimethatataskcanbedelayedwithoutcausingadelayinthecompletiondateoftheentireproject.Tasksthathaveslacktimecanbedelayedtoachieveresourceleveling此時可以用遞延的方法Activity6–DirecttheTeamEffortSupervisionresources 隨時監督資源的使用狀況TheDeadline:ANovelaboutProjectManagementThePeopleSideofSystemsTheOneMinuteManager

一分鐘經理人:立標,贊賞,申誡TheOneMinuteManagerMeetstheMonkeyStagesofTeamMaturity

(seefiguretotheright) 團隊成熟度的不同階段形成沖進規范執行10HintsforProjectLeadership

項目領導的十個要訣BeConsistent.要一致ProvideSupport.要提供支援Don’tMakePromisesYouCan’tKeep.不要承諾做不到的事PraiseinPublic;CriticizeinPrivate.公開表揚,私下申誡BeAwareofMoraleDangerPoints.注意會讓士氣受損的事SetRealisticDeadlines.設定符合實際的期限SetPerceivableTargets.設定可看到的目標ExplainandShow,RatherThanDo.多解釋與示范,而不是直接做Don’tRelyonJustStatusReports.不可只依賴進度報告EncourageaGoodTeamSpirit.鼓吹好的團隊精神Activity7–Monitorand

ControlProgressProgressreporting進度報告Changemanagement變動管理Expectationsmanagement預期管理Scheduleadjustments—criticalpathanalysis(CPA)更改時程與要徑分析ChangeManagement

變動管理Changemanagement–aformalstrategyinwhichaprocessisestablishedtofacilitatechangesthatoccurduringaproject.Changescanbetheresultofvariouseventsandfactorsincluding:為什么會造成變動的幾大原因：Anomissionindefininginitialscope工作定義時有疏漏Amisunderstandingoftheinitialscope誤解工作范圍Anexternaleventsuchasgovernmentregulationsthatcreatenewrequirements外部事件造成新需求(如政府法令要求)Organizationalchanges組織變動Availabilityofbettertechnology有更好的技術可用Shiftsinplannedtechnologythatforcechangestothebusinessorganization,culture,and/orprocesses技術造成的改變Management’sdesiretohavethesystemdomore管理階層Reducedfundingforprojectorimpositionofanearlierdeadline.經費減少或時程提前Activity8–AssessProjectResultsandExperiencesDidthefinalproductmeetorexceeduserexpectations?Whyorwhynot?Didtheprojectcomeinonschedule?Whyorwhynot?Didtheprojectcomeinunderbudget?Whyorwhynot?SAS:ServicesKeyinMainframeMigrationProjectWhatistheproblemwiththecurrent“homegrown”SASsystem?Whatsolutionsdoesthenewsystemprovide?Whataretheexpecteddollarsavingsfro,thisimplementation?IV.EvaluatingHardware,Software,and Services

PerformancemustbedemonstratedandevaluatedHardwareEvaluationFactors–physicaland