CHAP01GruberWhyStudyPublicFinance公共金融與公共政策課件WhyStudyPublicFinance?1.4Conclusion1.3WhyStudyPublicFinanceNow?PolicyDebatesoverSocialSecurity,HealthCare,andEducation1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinanceControversiesabouttheproperroleofthegovernmentraisethefundamentalquestionsaddressedbythebranchofeconomicsknownaspublicfinance.Thegoalofpublicfinanceistounderstandtheproperroleofthegovernmentintheeconomy.Chapter12WhyStudyPublicFinance?1.4CTheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance1.1publicfinanceThestudyoftheroleofthegovernmentintheeconomy.fourquestionsofpublicfinanceWhenshouldthegovernmentinterveneintheeconomy?Howmightthegovernmentintervene?Whatistheeffectofthoseinterventionsoneconomicoutcomes?Whydogovernmentschoosetointerveneinthewaythattheydo?3TheFourQuestionsofPublicFmarketfailureProblemthatcausesthemarketeconomytodeliveranoutcomethatdoesnotmaximizeefficiency.WhenShouldtheGovernmentInterveneintheEconomy?MarketFailures1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance4marketfailureProblemthatWhTheMeaslesEpidemicof1989–1991APPLICATIONAfterthemeaslesvaccinewasintroducedin1963,measlescaseshadbecomerelativelyrareintheU.S.bythe1980s.Overtheperiodfrom1989to1991,however,therewasahugeresurgenceinmeasles.Itisclearthatthisoutbreakresultedfromverylowimmunizationratesamongdisadvantagedinner-cityyouths.Theseunimmunizedchildrenwereimposinganegativeexternalityonotherchildrenwhohadreceivedtheirimmunizationsbutforwhomimmunizationmayhavewornoff.Thefederalgovernmentrespondedtothishealthcrisisintheearly1990s:Thegovernmentpubliclyencouragedparentstogettheirchildrenimmunized.Thegovernmentalsopaidforthevaccinesforlow-incomefamilies.Theresultwasimpressive.Immunizationrates,whichhadneverbeenabove70%beforetheepidemic,roseto90%by1995.Governmentinterventionclearlyreducedthisnegativeexternality.5TheMeaslesEpidemicof1989–1redistributionTheshiftingofresourcesfromsomegroupsinsocietytoothers.WhenShouldtheGovernmentInterveneintheEconomy?Redistribution1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance6redistributionTheshiftingoHowMighttheGovernmentIntervene?TaxorSubsidizePrivateSaleorPurchase1.1Onewaythatthegovernmentcantrytoaddressfailuresintheprivatemarketistousethepricemechanism,wherebygovernmentpolicyisusedtochangethepriceofagoodinoneoftwoways:1. Throughtaxes,whichraisethepriceforprivatesalesorpurchasesofgoodsthatareoverproduced,or2. Throughsubsidies,whichlowerthepriceforprivatesalesorpurchasesofgoodsthatareunderproduced.TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance7HowMighttheGovernmentInterHowMighttheGovernmentIntervene?RestrictorMandatePrivateSaleorPurchase1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinancePublicProvisionThegovernmentcandirectlyrestricttheprivatesaleorpurchaseofgoodsthatareoverproduced,ormandatetheprivatepurchaseofgoodsthatareunderproducedandforceindividualstobuythatgood.Thegovernmentcanprovidethegooddirectly,inordertopotentiallyattainthelevelofconsumptionthatmaximizessocialwelfare.PublicFinancingofPrivateProvisionGovernmentsmaywanttoinfluencethelevelofconsumptionbutmaynotwanttodirectlyinvolvethemselvesintheprovisionofagood.8HowMighttheGovernmentInterWhatAretheEffectsofAlternativeInterventions?DirectEffects1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinancedirecteffectsTheeffectsofgovernmentinterventionsthatwouldbepredictedifindividualsdidnotchangetheirbehaviorinresponsetotheinterventions.IndirectEffectsindirecteffectsTheeffectsofgovernmentinterventionsthatariseonlybecauseindividualschangetheirbehaviorinresponsetotheinterventions.9WhatAretheEffectsofAlternTheCongressionalBudgetOffice:

GovernmentScorekeepersAPPLICATIONThemethodsandresultsderivedfromempiricaleconomics

arecentraltothedevelopmentofpublicpolicyatalllevels

ofgovernment.TheCongressionalBudgetOffice(CBO)providesCongress

withtheobjective,timely,nonpartisananalysesneededforeconomicandbudgetdecisions.TheCBOincreasinglyplaysacriticalroleasa“scorekeeper”forgovernmentpolicydebates.LegislativespendingproposalsthataretobecomelawmustfirsthavetheircostsestimatedbytheanalystsattheCBO.ItisnotanoverstatementtosaythattheeconomistswhoworkattheCBOfrequentlyholdthefateofalegislativeproposalintheirhands.ThelargepricetagthattheCBOassignedtotheClintonadministration’splantoreformhealthcareintheUnitedStatesin1994isoftencitedasakeyfactorinthedefeatofthatproposal.10TheCongressionalBudgetOfficWhyDoGovernmentsDoWhatTheyDo?1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinancepoliticaleconomyThetheoryofhowthepoliticalprocessproducesdecisionsthataffectindividualsandtheeconomy.11WhyDoGovernmentsDoWhatTheTheSizeandGrowthofGovernment1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld12TheSizeandGrowthofGovernmTheSizeandGrowthofGovernment1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld13TheSizeandGrowthofGovernmDecentralization1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorldAkeyfeatureofgovernmentsisthedegreeofcentralizationacrosslocalandnationalgovernmentunits—thatis,theextenttowhichspendingisconcentratedathigher(federal)levelsorlower(stateandlocal)levels.14Decentralization1.2WhyStudySpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld15Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld16Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld17Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld18Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld19Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andDistributionofSpending1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld20DistributionofSpending1.2WDistributionofSpending1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld21DistributionofSpending1.2WDistributionofSpending1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorldpublicgoodsGoodsforwhichtheinvestmentofanyoneindividualbenefitseveryoneinalargergroup.socialinsuranceprogramsGovernmentprovisionofinsuranceagainstadverseeventstoaddressfailuresintheprivateinsurancemarket.22DistributionofSpending1.2WDistributionofRevenueSources1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld23DistributionofRevenueSourceDistributionofRevenueSources1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld24DistributionofRevenueSourceRegulatoryRoleoftheGovernment1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorldAnothercriticalrolethegovernmentplaysinallnationsisthatofregulatingeconomicandsocialactivities.TheFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)regulatesthelabelingandsafetyofnearlyallfoodproductsandbottledwater,testscosmeticstoensuretheirsafety,andapprovesdrugsandmedicaldevicestobesoldtothepublic.TheOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)ischargedwithregulatingtheworkplacesafetyofthe115millionAmericansemployedat7.2millionjobsites.TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)regulatesinterstateandinternationalcommunicationsbyradio,television,wire,satellite,andcable.TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)ischargedwithminimizingdangerouspollutantsintheair,water,andfoodsupplies.25RegulatoryRoleoftheGovernmSocialSecurity1.3WhyStudyPublicFinanceNow?PolicyDebatesoverSocialSecurity,HealthCare,andEducationSocialSecurityisthesinglelargestgovernmentexpenditureprogram.Thefinancingstructureofthisprogramisbasicallythattoday’syoungworkerspaytheretirementbenefitsoftoday’sold.HealthCareTherearecurrently45.8millionAmericanswithoutanyhealthinsurance,about18%ofthenon-elderlyU.S.population.ProjectionssuggestthathealthcarewillconsumealmosthalfofourGDPwithinthenextcentury.SocialSecurity,healthcare,andeducationareeachthesubjectofdebate,withboththe“l(fā)iberal”and“conservative”positionsholdingdifferingviewsintheirapproachtoeachproblem.26SocialSecurity1.3WhyStudyEducation1.3WhyStudyPublicFinanceNow?PolicyDebatesoverSocialSecurity,HealthCare,andEducationThereisanenormousdissatisfactionwithourcurrenteducationalsystem,highlightedbythedismalperformanceofU.S.studentsoninternationaltests.27Education1.3WhyStudyPublic1.4ConclusionItisclearfromthefactspresentedherethatthegovernmentplaysacentralroleinthelivesofallAmericans.Itisalsoclearthatthereisongoingdisagreementaboutwhetherthatroleshouldexpand,staythesame,orcontract.Thefactsandargumentsraisedinthischapterprovideabackdropforthinkingaboutthesetofpublicfinanceissuesthatweexploreintheremainderofthisbook.281.4ConclusionItisclearfroCHAP01GruberWhyStudyPublicFinance公共金融與公共政策課件WhyStudyPublicFinance?1.4Conclusion1.3WhyStudyPublicFinanceNow?PolicyDebatesoverSocialSecurity,HealthCare,andEducation1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinanceControversiesabouttheproperroleofthegovernmentraisethefundamentalquestionsaddressedbythebranchofeconomicsknownaspublicfinance.Thegoalofpublicfinanceistounderstandtheproperroleofthegovernmentintheeconomy.Chapter130WhyStudyPublicFinance?1.4CTheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance1.1publicfinanceThestudyoftheroleofthegovernmentintheeconomy.fourquestionsofpublicfinanceWhenshouldthegovernmentinterveneintheeconomy?Howmightthegovernmentintervene?Whatistheeffectofthoseinterventionsoneconomicoutcomes?Whydogovernmentschoosetointerveneinthewaythattheydo?31TheFourQuestionsofPublicFmarketfailureProblemthatcausesthemarketeconomytodeliveranoutcomethatdoesnotmaximizeefficiency.WhenShouldtheGovernmentInterveneintheEconomy?MarketFailures1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance32marketfailureProblemthatWhTheMeaslesEpidemicof1989–1991APPLICATIONAfterthemeaslesvaccinewasintroducedin1963,measlescaseshadbecomerelativelyrareintheU.S.bythe1980s.Overtheperiodfrom1989to1991,however,therewasahugeresurgenceinmeasles.Itisclearthatthisoutbreakresultedfromverylowimmunizationratesamongdisadvantagedinner-cityyouths.Theseunimmunizedchildrenwereimposinganegativeexternalityonotherchildrenwhohadreceivedtheirimmunizationsbutforwhomimmunizationmayhavewornoff.Thefederalgovernmentrespondedtothishealthcrisisintheearly1990s:Thegovernmentpubliclyencouragedparentstogettheirchildrenimmunized.Thegovernmentalsopaidforthevaccinesforlow-incomefamilies.Theresultwasimpressive.Immunizationrates,whichhadneverbeenabove70%beforetheepidemic,roseto90%by1995.Governmentinterventionclearlyreducedthisnegativeexternality.33TheMeaslesEpidemicof1989–1redistributionTheshiftingofresourcesfromsomegroupsinsocietytoothers.WhenShouldtheGovernmentInterveneintheEconomy?Redistribution1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance34redistributionTheshiftingoHowMighttheGovernmentIntervene?TaxorSubsidizePrivateSaleorPurchase1.1Onewaythatthegovernmentcantrytoaddressfailuresintheprivatemarketistousethepricemechanism,wherebygovernmentpolicyisusedtochangethepriceofagoodinoneoftwoways:1. Throughtaxes,whichraisethepriceforprivatesalesorpurchasesofgoodsthatareoverproduced,or2. Throughsubsidies,whichlowerthepriceforprivatesalesorpurchasesofgoodsthatareunderproduced.TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinance35HowMighttheGovernmentInterHowMighttheGovernmentIntervene?RestrictorMandatePrivateSaleorPurchase1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinancePublicProvisionThegovernmentcandirectlyrestricttheprivatesaleorpurchaseofgoodsthatareoverproduced,ormandatetheprivatepurchaseofgoodsthatareunderproducedandforceindividualstobuythatgood.Thegovernmentcanprovidethegooddirectly,inordertopotentiallyattainthelevelofconsumptionthatmaximizessocialwelfare.PublicFinancingofPrivateProvisionGovernmentsmaywanttoinfluencethelevelofconsumptionbutmaynotwanttodirectlyinvolvethemselvesintheprovisionofagood.36HowMighttheGovernmentInterWhatAretheEffectsofAlternativeInterventions?DirectEffects1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinancedirecteffectsTheeffectsofgovernmentinterventionsthatwouldbepredictedifindividualsdidnotchangetheirbehaviorinresponsetotheinterventions.IndirectEffectsindirecteffectsTheeffectsofgovernmentinterventionsthatariseonlybecauseindividualschangetheirbehaviorinresponsetotheinterventions.37WhatAretheEffectsofAlternTheCongressionalBudgetOffice:

GovernmentScorekeepersAPPLICATIONThemethodsandresultsderivedfromempiricaleconomics

arecentraltothedevelopmentofpublicpolicyatalllevels

ofgovernment.TheCongressionalBudgetOffice(CBO)providesCongress

withtheobjective,timely,nonpartisananalysesneededforeconomicandbudgetdecisions.TheCBOincreasinglyplaysacriticalroleasa“scorekeeper”forgovernmentpolicydebates.LegislativespendingproposalsthataretobecomelawmustfirsthavetheircostsestimatedbytheanalystsattheCBO.ItisnotanoverstatementtosaythattheeconomistswhoworkattheCBOfrequentlyholdthefateofalegislativeproposalintheirhands.ThelargepricetagthattheCBOassignedtotheClintonadministration’splantoreformhealthcareintheUnitedStatesin1994isoftencitedasakeyfactorinthedefeatofthatproposal.38TheCongressionalBudgetOfficWhyDoGovernmentsDoWhatTheyDo?1.1TheFourQuestionsofPublicFinancepoliticaleconomyThetheoryofhowthepoliticalprocessproducesdecisionsthataffectindividualsandtheeconomy.39WhyDoGovernmentsDoWhatTheTheSizeandGrowthofGovernment1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld40TheSizeandGrowthofGovernmTheSizeandGrowthofGovernment1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld41TheSizeandGrowthofGovernmDecentralization1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorldAkeyfeatureofgovernmentsisthedegreeofcentralizationacrosslocalandnationalgovernmentunits—thatis,theextenttowhichspendingisconcentratedathigher(federal)levelsorlower(stateandlocal)levels.42Decentralization1.2WhyStudySpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld43Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld44Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld45Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld46Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andSpending,Taxes,Deficits,andDebts1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld47Spending,Taxes,Deficits,andDistributionofSpending1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld48DistributionofSpending1.2WDistributionofSpending1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld49DistributionofSpending1.2WDistributionofSpending1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorldpublicgoodsGoodsforwhichtheinvestmentofanyoneindividualbenefitseveryoneinalargergroup.socialinsuranceprogramsGovernmentprovisionofinsuranceagainstadverseeventstoaddressfailuresintheprivateinsurancemarket.50DistributionofSpending1.2WDistributionofRevenueSources1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld51DistributionofRevenueSourceDistributionofRevenueSources1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorld52DistributionofRevenueSourceRegulatoryRoleoftheGovernment1.2WhyStudyPublicFinance?FactsonGovernmentintheUnitedStatesandAroundtheWorldAnothercriticalrolethegovernmentplaysinallnationsisthatofregulatingeconomicandsocialactivities.TheFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)regulatesthelabelingandsafetyofnearlyallfoodproductsandbottledwater,testscosmeticstoens